Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants (N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.

Peritraumatic Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Seoul, South Korea

“…Recently, trauma-related mental health problems due to COVID-19 such as post-trauma stress disorder and traumatic stress also has been examined. The COVID-19 pandemic creates substantial traumatogenic events for everyone, from confirmed patients and healthcare workers to the general public [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Nevertheless, trauma-related reactions and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to the novel coronavirus have been addressed relatively less compared to the general psychological problems such as depression and anxiety [ 30 ].…”

“…Nevertheless, trauma-related reactions and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to the novel coronavirus have been addressed relatively less compared to the general psychological problems such as depression and anxiety [ 30 ]. Considering the facts that the psychological impact of COVID-19 on individuals could vary in degree and in type [ 31 ] and that the pandemic is likely to be a traumatic stressor that is still in progress [ 28 ], it is critical to examine trauma-related reactions due to COVID-19, along with psychological reactions such as anxiety, depression.…”

“…Peritraumatic distress is the emotional and physiological distressed responses during and/or immediately after a traumatic event [ 28 , 32 ]. Although peritraumatic distress is not a clinically diagnosed psychiatric disease, it has been demonstrated to be associated with a higher risk of developing PTSD [ 33 ] and increased PTSD severity [ 34 ].…”

Impact of COVID-19 on Psychological Status of General Population

“…It can also increase the risk of other comorbid mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression and make the people to take up harmful habits such as smoking, alcohol consumption and drug abuse etc. [14].…”

COVID-19: rethinking seafarers’ temporality to improve healthcare and prevention practices?

“…On the other hand, some could feel guilty of living in a COVID-19-free environment while their loved ones are exposed and threatened by the virus back in their hometown. Finally, it is worth mentioning that seafarers anticipating the fact that they have to come back to their hometown and be exposed to the pandemic may induce a particular form of post-traumatic stress disorder [5]. Some marines, on the contrary, experienced the epidemic on board, in a confined environment.…”