Wild great apes as sentinels and sources of infectious disease

Calvignac‐Spencer, Sébastien; Leendertz, Siv Aina J.; Gillespie, Thomas R.; Leendertz, Fabian H.

doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03816.x

Cited by 114 publications

(94 citation statements)

References 66 publications

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“…A recent study of apes north and south of the Uele River documented a major increase in chimpanzee killing due to an influx of artisanal diamond and gold miners (26). Thus, increased surveillance of humans in these areas for SIVcpzPts and other ape-derived infections may be warranted (6,11,38).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Eastern Chimpanzees, but Not Bonobos, Represent a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Reservoir

Ndjango

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et al. 2012

J Virol

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Chimpanzees in west central Africa ( Pan troglodytes troglodytes ) are endemically infected with simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVcpz Ptt ) that have crossed the species barrier to humans and gorillas on at least five occasions, generating pandemic and nonpandemic forms of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) as well as gorilla SIV (SIVgor). Chimpanzees in east Africa ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) are also infected with SIVcpz; however, their viruses (SIVcpz Pts ) have never been found in humans. To examine whether this is due to a paucity of natural infections, we used noninvasive methods to screen wild-living eastern chimpanzees in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Uganda, and Rwanda. We also screened bonobos ( Pan paniscus ) in the DRC, a species not previously tested for SIV in the wild. Fecal samples ( n = 3,108) were collected at 50 field sites, tested for species and subspecies origin, and screened for SIVcpz antibodies and nucleic acids. Of 2,565 samples from eastern chimpanzees, 323 were antibody positive and 92 contained viral RNA. The antibody-positive samples represented 76 individuals from 19 field sites, all sampled north of the Congo River in an area spanning 250,000 km 2 . In this region, SIVcpz Pts was common and widespread, with seven field sites exhibiting infection rates of 30% or greater. The overall prevalence of SIVcpz Pts infection was 13.4% (95% confidence interval, 10.7% to 16.5%). In contrast, none of the 543 bonobo samples from six sites was antibody positive. All newly identified SIVcpz Pts strains clustered in strict accordance to their subspecies origin; however, they exhibited considerable genetic diversity, especially in protein domains known to be under strong host selection pressure. Thus, the absence of SIVcpz Pts zoonoses cannot be explained by an insufficient primate reservoir. Instead, greater adaptive hurdles may have prevented the successful colonization of humans by P. t. schweinfurthii viruses.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Eastern Chimpanzees, but Not Bonobos, Represent a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Reservoir

Ndjango

Learn

et al. 2012

J Virol

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“…oonotic transmission of animal pathogens into the human population is regarded as the major source of new human infectious disease (1)(2)(3). Such zoonoses have profoundly altered the course of human history, as reflected by the impact of the bubonic plague, Spanish flu, and HIV/AIDS on human society (4)(5)(6).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Absence of Frequent Herpesvirus Transmission in a Nonhuman Primate Predator-Prey System in the Wild

Murthy

Couacy‐Hymann

Metzger

et al. 2013

J Virol

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e Emergence of viruses into the human population by transmission from nonhuman primates (NHPs) represents a serious potential threat to human health that is primarily associated with the increased bushmeat trade. Transmission of RNA viruses across primate species appears to be relatively frequent. In contrast, DNA viruses appear to be largely host specific, suggesting low transmission potential. Herein, we use a primate predator-prey system to study the risk of herpesvirus transmission between different primate species in the wild. The system was comprised of western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and their primary (western red colobus, Piliocolobus badius badius) and secondary (black-and-white colobus, Colobus polykomos) prey monkey species. NHP species were frequently observed to be coinfected with multiple beta-and gammaherpesviruses (including new cytomegalo-and rhadinoviruses). However, despite frequent exposure of chimpanzees to blood, organs, and bones of their herpesvirus-infected monkey prey, there was no evidence for cross-species herpesvirus transmission. These findings suggest that interspecies transmission of NHP beta-and gammaherpesviruses is, at most, a rare event in the wild. Z oonotic transmission of animal pathogens into the human population is regarded as the major source of new human infectious disease (1-3). Such zoonoses have profoundly altered the course of human history, as reflected by the impact of the bubonic plague, Spanish flu, and HIV/AIDS on human society (4-6). Zoonoses are frequently transmitted to humans following an initial cross-species transmission into an intermediate animal host. Mechanisms underlying cross-species transmission and adaptation to new host species are far from clear but appear to be influenced by multiple factors, including the level and mode of interaction between animal reservoir/transmission source and humans, the phylogenetic relationship of these species, and the nature of the zoonotic pathogen (2,7,8). Zoonotic/enzootic cross-species transmission appears to be a relatively common characteristic of RNA viruses (8). In contrast, the efficiency of cross-species transmission for DNA viruses is unclear. For the Herpesviridae family, transmission appears to be a relatively rare event. In the few instances where virus transmission has been observed, the lack of onward transmission and the uncharacteristically highly pathogenic presentation of overt disease in the new species (e.g., ovine/caprine herpesvirus infection in free-ranging cervids and herpesvirus B in humans) suggest that herpesviruses poorly adapt to their new host environment (9-11).To date, most studies examining cross-species transmission of herpesviruses have been based on phylogenetic analysis of genomic sequences. These studies reveal well-defined genotypic groupings of alpha-, beta-, and gammaherpesviruses within the respective herpesvirus subfamilies Alphaherpesvirinae, Betaherpesvirinae, and Gammaherpesvirinae (12). This phylogenetic distribution has been interpreted as coevolution (co...

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“…Such methods have been useful in the screening of saliva, feces and urine for systemic, gastrointestinal, and respiratory pathogens of great ape populations [Gillespie et al, 2010;Kaur et al, 2008;Keele et al, 2009;Köndgen et al, 2010;Liu et al, 2008;Makuwa & Souquiere, 2003;Rudicell et al, 2010;Schaumburg et al, 2012a]. Readers are referred to excellent reviews of infectious diseases of free-living great apes and noninvasive sampling methods for the screening of a variety of pathogens [Calvignac-Spencer et al, 2012;Gillespie et al, 2008;Leendertz et al, 2006]. Accordingly, there are several molecular methods that may be applied to such samples and be useful in the detection of tuberculosis infection (Table II).…”

Section: Tuberculosis Infection In Primatesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The risk of tuberculosis transmission to free‐ranging great apes

Wolf

Sreevatsan

Travis

et al. 2013

American J Primatol

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Pathogen exchange between humans and primates has been facilitated by anthropogenic disturbances, such as changing land use patterns, habitat destruction, and poaching, which decrease population sizes and increase levels of primate-human interaction. As a result, human and domestic animal diseases have become a recognized threat to endangered primate populations. Tuberculosis is a major global human and animal health concern, especially in equatorial Africa where many of the remaining free-living great ape populations exist in proximity with exposed and/or infected human populations and their domestic animals. Increased anthropogenic pressure creates an opportunity for the anthropozoonotic spread of this disease. This review examines current evidence of the risk of tuberculosis transmission to great apes, the benefits and limitations of current detection methods, the impact of current great ape conservation and management strategies on this risk, and the need for an ecosystem health-based approach to mitigating the risks of tuberculosis transmission to great apes.

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Wild great apes as sentinels and sources of infectious disease

Cited by 114 publications

References 66 publications

Eastern Chimpanzees, but Not Bonobos, Represent a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Reservoir

Eastern Chimpanzees, but Not Bonobos, Represent a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Reservoir

Absence of Frequent Herpesvirus Transmission in a Nonhuman Primate Predator-Prey System in the Wild

The risk of tuberculosis transmission to free‐ranging great apes

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