Women Empowerment in Pakistan: Multilevel Measurements, Spatial Differences, and Contributing Factors

Abstract

Based on Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) 2017-18 data covering a sample of 15068 currently married females aged 15-49 years, the study intends to investigate the women empowerment situation across the regions and districts of Pakistan as well as to explore the factors affecting women empowerment in Pakistan. An index of women empowerment (ranging from score 0 to 7) was constructed by taking the sum of the seven indicators on the five dimensions: woman's participation in decision making, awareness, employment, self-esteem, and financial inclusion status. The extent of women empowerment regarding each particular indicator is gauged (in percentage) at a national level as well as at regional and district levels. Regarding each particular indicator of women's empowerment, spatial differences exist across the country at the regional and district levels. At the country level, women empowerment is poor in Pakistan. Nearly 86% of respondent women said they were currently not working (unemployed). Similarly, 92% said they did not have an account in a bank or financial institution. At the same time, 57% percent of women reported that they do not own a mobile phone, 87% indicated that they never used the internet, and 40% stated that they were not watching television. At the country level, the women empowerment index's mean score was 2.14. The mean score of the women empowerment index at the regional level stood between 0.52 (in FATA) and 3.43 (in ICT), whereas at the district level, the mean score of the index stood between 0.03 (in South Waziristan) and 4.82 (in Hunza). Out of a total of 143 districts in Pakistan, in 13 districts, the mean score of the women empowerment index remained less than 1. Findings of the ordered logit regression showed that women's higher education, age, husband's higher education, household wealth status, female headship of household, number of living children, and belongingness to the urban area are positively associated with the empowerment of women.

Government’s Income Support and Women Empowerment: Regional Estimates of a Lower Middle-Income Economy

“…Respondents from urban areas are more empowered than the women in rural areas. These results are similar to the numerous previously done studies (Haleem et al, 2021;Iqbal et al, 2020;Kazembe, 2020;Mahmood, 2002;Nayak & Mahanta, 2009;Paul et al, 2016;Urooj et al, 2022).…”

“…According to this latest study Urooj, Ahmad, Nawaz, and Bhatti (2023), they argued that empowered women are more concerned about their health, so they opt for family planning methods, which are ultimately helpful in controlling population size in the economy.…”

“…According to a study conducted by Urooj, Ahmad, Bhatti, and Hussain (2022), based on the data collected from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS 2017-18), amongst a sample of 12339 ever-married women, 51% women are illiterate, 49% have no or low self-esteem, 57% women do not have say in making decisions regarding their health, and about 20% women have no say in selecting their husbands. Similarly, 45.2% of women are not connected to the media (television as a source of information), 60% do not own mobile phones, and 88% have no access to the internet facility.…”

Coping with Hostile Discrimination: The Roles of Self-Advocacy, Positive Psychology, and Unconscious Bias Training in Higher Education

“…They also develop a feeling of prejudice in their minds due to which their self-esteem and morale get lowered (Kirkman & Oswald, 2020). In Pakistan, 62% of the women are with low self-esteem (Urooj, Ahmad, Bhatti, & Hussain, 2022;Urooj, Bhatti, Ahmad, & Nawaz, 2023). Therefore, such matters are of great concern and require to be investigated so that the negative impacts can be explored for taking appropriate measures to mitigate their negative impacts (Kirkman & Oswald, 2020).…”

Breaking Barriers, Building Bridges: Economic Freedom and Women's Empowerment

“…Faria and Montesinos (2009) employed IEF and empirically tested it against income levels and economic growth and concluded the presence of a positive and significant relationship between economic freedom and economic growth as well as with income levels (Gillani, Ahmed, Khan, & Hussain, 2022). A large body of economic literature is devoted to exploring the relationship between economic freedom and growth (Ayal & Karras, 1998;Brkić, Gradojević, & Ignjatijević, 2020;Carlsson & Lundström, 2002;Doucouliagos & Ulubasoglu, 2006;Justesen, 2008;Panahi, Assadzadeh, & Refaei, 2014;Urooj, Ahmad, Bhatti, & Hussain, 2022;Williamson & Mathers, 2011).…”