Working smart: the use of ‘cognitive enhancers’ by UK university students

Abstract

Working smart: the use of 'cognitive enhancers' by UK University students Cognitive enhancers include a wide range of substances including prescription medication for attentional deficient disorders and pharmacological substances for cognitive augmentation. Students have recently been identified as the largest cohort of users. Most research on student use of cognitive enhancers has been undertaken in the United States. This study utilised a mixed methods sequential explanatory approach to investigate cognitive enhancer use among UK university students specifically to aid study. A bespoke online survey was distributed throughout the UK. The findings informed the development of a qualitativeinterview study comprising fifteen participants. In total, 506 responses to the online survey were received from 54 UK institutions. 46% of respondents reported using recreational drugs and 19% reported having used cognitive enhancers. Males were two and a half times more likely to use cognitive enhancers than females. Participants reported various motives for using cognitive enhancers, the most frequent being to meet the demands of coursework, to improve focus or maintain wakefulness. The qualitative findings revealed that cognitive enhancers are widely accessible and are used to enhance performance in terms of motivation, concentration and meeting academic deadlines. The findings of this study will be of interest to a wide range of services within Universities across the UK.

The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review

“…Males were here identified as the most typical CE misusers [ 7 , 22 , 30 , 31 , 41 , 51 , 52 , 63 , 66 , 70 , 71 , 73 , 74 , 75 ], with some studies reporting a male:female ratio of 3:1 [ 54 ]. In contrast with this, a Welsh study reported that female representation was slightly more than males [ 68 ].…”

“…In another study, 75.5% of methylphenidate was identified as having been purchased from friends at a university campus whilst 64.3% of modafinil was obtained online [ 22 ]. Accessing the web for drug acquisition activities is a reason for concern [ 30 ], with young people (18–25 years old) being at high risk because there is no way to know what the actual ingredients of the drugs/substances are in those products [ 30 ], they are extensive users of the Internet [ 112 ]; it was found that over a third of the websites selling modafinil specifically recommended use of the drug to aid studying [ 30 ].…”

“…The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in the different countries is affected by a range of factors, including legal, social, and ethical factors [ 33 , 40 , 116 ]. Indeed, some CEs are being openly made available online [ 30 , 117 ], where they are marketed as “smart drugs”, “study drugs”, “plant food”, “research chemicals” and “designer drugs” as well [ 30 , 112 ]. The unregulated online access, and especially so for modafinil and methylphenidate, is likely to be associated with an increase in CEs’ non-medical use and subsequent harm [ 30 ].…”

“…Indeed, some CEs are being openly made available online [ 30 , 117 ], where they are marketed as “smart drugs”, “study drugs”, “plant food”, “research chemicals” and “designer drugs” as well [ 30 , 112 ]. The unregulated online access, and especially so for modafinil and methylphenidate, is likely to be associated with an increase in CEs’ non-medical use and subsequent harm [ 30 ]. Indeed, high levels of modafinil may have reportedly been sold and shipped to students at high-ranking/top UK universities, mostly during the examination period [ 118 ].…”

“…Inclusion criteria were quantitative (surveys) and qualitative (interviews) studies having been carried out among healthy students aged 18 years and older in HEIs. Articles were included if they related to a range of nine CEs (prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine), which were selected here because of their popularity among university students [ 4 , 7 , 22 , 26 , 30 ]. Studies written in English, from the year 2000 (i.e., from around the time when NPS started to emerge in drug scenarios) to 2020 were included in the study search.…”