Worktime control: theoretical conceptualization, current empirical knowledge, and research agenda

Abstract

Working hours play a crucial role in the life, health, and well-being of workers. Concerning irregular working hours, the recent Fifth European Working Conditions Survey (1) shows that night work is carried out by 19% and shift work by 17% of all workers in Europe. More than half of the total workforce works at least one day during the weekend and 21% works "on call". The health effects of night and shift work have been a popular and important area of research within Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health (eg,[2][3][4], including new and interesting data and a consensus statement on shift work and breast cancer (5) published in this issue (5-8). As working times are becoming increasingly irregular and flexible, their associations with work-life balance, work satisfaction, mental health, and productivity are of growing interest.Regarding worktime flexibility, the literature distinguishes between company-based and employeeoriented flexibility (9-13). The former refers to "the need of employers to extend, modify, or reduce work hours according to client or production needs" (10, p503). Shift work and mandatory overtime are well-known examples. Employee-oriented worktime flexibility refers to autonomy regarding working times with the aim of meeting employee needs (14). A similar construct is worktime control (WTC): "an employee's perception of his/her possibilities to control the duration, position, and distribution of his/her working times" (10, p503). WTC refers to self-determination of worktime aspects such as starting and ending times of the work day, breaks, days off, vacations (9), and control over whether, when and how much to work overtime (15). The distinction between company-based and employee-oriented worktime flexibility is helpful but one must bear in mind that a clear distinction is not always possible: although scholars tend to present WTC as a form of employee-oriented flexibility, it may also be implemented to advance organizational needs, such as higher work motivation and productivity and lower absenteeism and turnover of valued employees (16).Applications of worktime flexibility are by no means new phenomena. Company-based shift work has been a health issue in Europe since the end of the 19 th century (17). WTC was pioneered at a German company in 1967, in the form of "gliding time" (cf. flextime). This early experiment resulted in favorable organizational outcomes and, from 1970 onwards, flextime spread in West-European countries (18). Yet, until the late 20 th century, patterns of work schedules remained quite uniform, and work hours were still mainly determined by the employer with limited freedom on the part of employees (11,18). During the 1990s, major trends towards enhanced employee-oriented WTC emerged. This was a reaction to the louder call for "healthy work" and the rising labor participation of women and associated challenges regarding successfully combining work and family (11).In the 21 st century, the trend towards more flexible worktime practices continues. Many organi...

Worktime control access, need and use in relation to work-home interference, fatigue, and job motivation

“…This implies that WTC interventions on an organizational level, such as boundaryless work (28)(29)(30) or self-scheduling (eg, 23-27), should not be expected to be beneficial for every individual, and that tailor-made implementations based on need assessments might be more effective in terms of employees' workhome balance, energy levels, and motivation (7).…”

“…Several studies suggest that employees' control over working hours [ie, worktime control (WTC)] may attenuate such negative effects (4)(5)(6). Employees who report relatively high levels of WTC seem better able to regulate their time demands (ie, time regulation) and recovery needs (ie, recovery-regulation), allowing them to combine work and domestic obligations and manage fatigue by taking sufficient rest (7). Additionally, having control over one's working hours meets the basic human need for autonomy (ie, self-determination) and can have beneficial effects on motivation and well-being (eg, [8][9][10][11][12][13].…”

Effects of new ways of working on work hours and work location, health and job-related outcomes

“…High worktime control can improve the fit between employees' work and private-life (e.g. Beckers et al, 2012;Nijp et al, 2015) and may allow employees to align their work schedule with their chronotype (Wittman et al, 2006). Flexible use of office space and digitalization of information may allow cost reductions and increase work efficiency or information sharing (e.g.…”

A női munkavállalás hatása a napi időfelhasználásra

“…A rugalmas munkavégzésnek két -vállalati, illetve munkavállalói -típusa különíthető el (Beckers et al 2012;Correll et al 2014;Eurofound 2005). Az előbbi olyan munkaidőt jelent, amely a vállalat tevékenységének és/vagy a vezető utasításának függvényében -akár előre nem kiszámíthatóan ("just-in-time scheduling") -módosul.…”

“…Azonban ennél a típusnál is számolni kell negatívumokkal, azaz nagyobb valószínűséggel mosódnak el a munka és a magánélet határai, gyakoribb az otthoni és/vagy esti munkavégzés, amely a házastárssal, és a gyermekkel közösen töltött időre negatívan hathat, és ily módon a családi életben feszültségekhez vezethet. A munkaidő rugalmasságával összefüggésben a pozitívumokat is meg kell említeni: javítja a munkavállaló elégedettségét és ösztönzi teljesítményét, valamint csökkenti a stresszt és a munkahelyi hiányzást (Beckers et al 2012).…”