X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia and COVID-19: Two Case Reports and Review of Literature

Devassikutty, Fiji Madona; Jain, Abhinav; Edavazhippurath, Athulya; Joseph, Michael; Peedikayil, Mohammed Manakkattu Thekke; Scaria, Vinod; Sandhya, Pulukool; Govindaraj, Geeta

doi:10.1089/ped.2021.0002

Cited by 11 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 10 publications

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“… 9 , 12 , 13 Two more patients have been reported to demonstrate prolonged shedding of SARS-CoV-2 virus ranging from 3 to 7 weeks, a feature seen commonly in patients with primary immunodeficiency. 7 , 10 Another case series reported 6 patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia who had asymptomatic or mild SARS-CoV-2 infection and who promptly recovered without any specific treatment. 14 Patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia may have milder infection because of amelioration of the cytokine storm due to impaired IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α production and STAT1/3 upregulation through the Toll-like receptor 9 pathway.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

SARS-CoV-2 Infection in an Adolescent With X-linked Agammaglobulinemia

Pereira¹,

Heath²,

Doerholt³

et al. 2021

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal

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We present a case of a 17-year-old boy with X-linked agammaglobulinemia who had mild disease when initially infected with SARS-CoV-2 but after recovering from acute infection developed fevers and a raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate that persisted for several weeks without any ongoing respiratory symptoms. Multiple nasopharyngeal swabs were found to be negative for SARS-CoV-2 during the febrile period, but typical changes of COVID-19 on high resolution CT chest scan led to the detection of SARS-CoV-2 on RT-PCR in a sample from a bronchoalveolar lavage. His fevers completely resolved after a 5-day course of remdesivir.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

SARS-CoV-2 Infection in an Adolescent With X-linked Agammaglobulinemia

Pereira¹,

Heath²,

Doerholt³

et al. 2021

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal

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“…These patients developed pneumonia which eventually resolved but never required ventilation or intensive care. This was the first time that B-cell response might be considered important, but it is not strictly required to overcome COVID-19 disease [ 335 , 336 ]. In addition, in 2020, groups in Germany and the USA independently discovered reactive T cells to the S glycoprotein during SARS-CoV-2 infection in around 30% of healthy donors when analyzing the T cell response of COVID-19 patients [ 337 , 338 ].…”

Section: T Cells and The Adaptive Immune System In Sars-cov-2 Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms

Brown¹,

Ojha²,

Fricke³

et al. 2023

Vaccines

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The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was caused by a positive sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, other human coronaviruses (hCoVs) exist. Historical pandemics include smallpox and influenza, with efficacious therapeutics utilized to reduce overall disease burden through effectively targeting a competent host immune system response. The immune system is composed of primary/secondary lymphoid structures with initially eight types of immune cell types, and many other subtypes, traversing cell membranes utilizing cell signaling cascades that contribute towards clearance of pathogenic proteins. Other proteins discussed include cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complexes (MHC), pleiotropic interleukins (IL), and chemokines (CXC). The historical concepts of host immunity are the innate and adaptive immune systems. The adaptive immune system is represented by T cells, B cells, and antibodies. The innate immune system is represented by macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and the complement system. Other viruses can affect and regulate cell cycle progression for example, in cancers that include human papillomavirus (HPV: cervical carcinoma), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV: lymphoma), Hepatitis B and C (HB/HC: hepatocellular carcinoma) and human T cell Leukemia Virus-1 (T cell leukemia). Bacterial infections also increase the risk of developing cancer (e.g., Helicobacter pylori). Viral and bacterial factors can cause both morbidity and mortality alongside being transmitted within clinical and community settings through affecting a host immune response. Therefore, it is appropriate to contextualize advances in single cell sequencing in conjunction with other laboratory techniques allowing insights into immune cell characterization. These developments offer improved clarity and understanding that overlap with autoimmune conditions that could be affected by innate B cells (B1+ or marginal zone cells) or adaptive T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and other pathologies. Thus, this review starts with an introduction into host respiratory infection before examining invaluable cellular messenger proteins and then individual immune cell markers.

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“…A very limited amount of data is present in the literature on SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in X‐linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) patients 1 . Moreover, it remains unclear the role of vaccination against SARS‐CoV‐2 in these subjects 2 …”

Section: Figurementioning

confidence: 99%

“…To the Editor, A very limited amount of data is present in the literature on SARS-CoV-2 infection in X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) patients. 1 Moreover, it remains unclear the role of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 in these subjects. 2 IL-6 is the main cause of the cytokine storm 3 that characterized severe COVID-19; notably, the lack of IL-6 production by macrophages due to the absence of Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) that characterized XLA patients was suggested to be responsible for the mild-to-moderate clinical course of infection seen in these patients.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%