X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): Principles and Application for the Analysis of Photoactive Materials

X‐Ray Techniques Dedicated to Materials Characterization in Cultural Heritage

“…[64] Multiple splitting peaks are the splitting of p, d, and f orbital peaks if the spin of the resulting unpaired electron is parallel to that in the valence levels (there is a net spin of the atom). [64,74] The emitted photoelectrons can undergo inelastic collisions, recombination, trapping, and excitation within the material that reduce their numbers or energies. Thus the exponential correction function can be used to improve the quality of spectra.…”

“…The plasmon loss peaks arise from extrinsic plasmons as collective oscillations of the electron gas that are excited by the interaction with electrons of sufficient kinetic energy [64] . Multiple splitting peaks are the splitting of p, d, and f orbital peaks if the spin of the resulting unpaired electron is parallel to that in the valence levels (there is a net spin of the atom) [64,74] . The emitted photoelectrons can undergo inelastic collisions, recombination, trapping, and excitation within the material that reduce their numbers or energies.…”

“…Data manipulation of XPS spectra includes the deconvolution of XPS peaks to separate overlapping contributions to the observed spectra and simplify the data interpretation [69,73] . XPS databases (like the NIST database) can be used to identify elements and their chemical state [74] …”

“…Satellite peaks are small peaks resulting from a sudden change in Coulombic potential as the ejected electrons pass through the valence band. This change may lead to either the excitation of valence electrons to a higher unfilled level (shake‐off) or the ejection of valence electrons to the unbound state (shake‐up) [74] . The Auger peaks differ from the ejected core electrons and have broader shapes [76] .…”

“…[69,73] XPS databases (like the NIST database) can be used to identify elements and their chemical state. [74]…”