Since 2012 the Communist Party of China (CPC) has strengthened its monopoly on political power and greatly expanded its control over Chinese social and economic life. The sustained expansion of political and social controls across multiple arenas indicates that politics in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is entering the second part of the cycle that some observers, including Chinese intellectuals, call the fang-shou shiqi (放收时期), or 'relaxing and tightening cycle'. Since the beginning of the post-Mao reform era in the 1980s, the party has oscillated between a more relaxed (liberal) posture and a tight (repressive) one. Relatively relaxed periods have been characterised by social, cultural, economic and intellectual liberalisation, including greater tolerance for free expression and criticism. We could refer to this mode of governance as 'soft authoritarianism'. However, when periods of openness have produced too much criticism or social unrest, as during the student-led protest movement of 1989, party leaders have sensed a threat to their grip on power and responded by clamping down on the threat-with the help of the army in 1989-and by tightening political and social controls more generally. We could refer to this mode of governance as 'hard authoritarianism'. people to work towards specific state goals. All individual freedoms become subsumed by duty and obedience to the state. Under hard authoritarianism, individual freedoms can still exist, particularly in the economic sphere, but various forms of social organisation will be subjected to close state surveillance. Under totalitarian rule, very little activity takes place outside state direction and surveillance. Earlier periods of CPC rule, notably during the Mao era, can be described as totalitarian, but those who use the term to describe today's China oversimplify the fragmented nature of China's vast state and overlook the freedoms that are available to people in the social and economic sphere (in stark contrast to the Mao era). David Shambaugh (2018) discusses four possible political futures for China: neo-totalitarianism, hard authoritarianism, soft authoritarianism and semi-democracy. Shambaugh argues that China will stagnate if it stays on the path of hard authoritarianism, making a return to soft authoritarianism more likely.