ZEBRA batteries, enhanced power by doping

Böhm, H.; Beyermann, G

doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(99)00327-4

Cited by 42 publications

(44 citation statements)

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“…10 In short, the counterelectrode, contained in the bottom of a borosilicate glass flask, is a coil of 2-mm-diameter nickel wire (99.98%, Alfa Aesar), covered in 5 g of aluminum flakes (granular, 99.7%, Sigma Aldrich), 5 g of sodium chloride, and 30 g of NaAlCl 4 (powder, 99.99%, Sigma Aldrich). The positive electrode is built in a flat-bottom, H3-size, Ionotec sodium-conducting β -alumina tube (H3-80-LN, Ionotec); with the bottom of the tube resting on the counter electrode.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…4 In addition, the sodium/metal-chloride battery has a long life, a deep discharge cycling ability, a high safety level, 100% coulombic efficiency, and a broad ambient-temperature operating range.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The positive electrode contains iron, nickel, or both, as well as NaCl and a secondary electrolyte NaAlCl 4 . When fully discharged, the positive electrode has a typical porosity of 60%.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Study of the Positive Electrode of a Na|Ni(Fe)-Chloride Cell

Zhu

Vallance

Rahimian

et al. 2015

J. Electrochem. Soc.

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The response to open-circuit interrupts of porous mixed iron-nickel cathodes operating in NaCl-buffered, molten NaAlCl 4 electrolyte has been characterized as a function of state of charge (SOC) for different iron loadings and different charge and discharge rates. After discharge, the open-circuit potential (OCP) can evolve in time from the iron plateau to the nickel plateau, and this behavior can be explained by galvanic interactions between iron metal and Ni 2+ . Characteristic times of the OCP transients depend on SOC and can be large. When the OCP has converged on a steady state during discharge, its value may provide an estimate of the mole fraction of NiCl 2 at the interface of the triclinic (Ni,Fe)Cl 2 film that resulted from metal oxidation. Detailed analyses of the experiment require modeling of the galvanic conversion rates, which depend on both charge-transfer and mass-transfer phenomena. The high-performance sodium metal chloride battery has garnered significant interest in the past decade due to its multiple advantages. The high energy density of the battery (90 Wh/kg) positions it as an attractive and economical alternative for stationary storage applications.1-3 Furthermore, because of its relatively high power density of 150 W/kg, the technology has also been considered for transportation applications. 4 In addition, the sodium/metal-chloride battery has a long life, a deep discharge cycling ability, a high safety level, 100% coulombic efficiency, and a broad ambient-temperature operating range. 5-9The cell is assembled in a fully discharged state. Once heated (260-340• C) and charged, it contains a liquid sodium anode separated from the positive electrode by a ceramic sodium-conducting β -alumina solid electrolyte (BASE). The positive electrode contains iron, nickel, or both, as well as NaCl and a secondary electrolyte NaAlCl 4 . When fully discharged, the positive electrode has a typical porosity of 60%. Excess transition-metal (M, where M is Fe or Ni)) powder is added to these cells to facilitate three-dimensional electronic conductivity inside the cathode. 7 The overall cell reaction is given by:Most commercial cells are comprised of a nickel positive electrode, in part because of the higher oxidation potential and the lower active species solubility of nickel, compared to iron. However, the nickel cathode is often combined with a small mass fraction of iron, as this improves cell performance, especially in applications demanding high discharge pulse power at low states of charge. 7 The presence of the iron in the electrode improves performance, but significantly increases the complexity of the reaction kinetics of the cathode.In a companion study, we discussed key features of the constantrate charge and discharge behavior of mixed Ni-Fe chloride cells. 10The cell potential, as a function of SOC, depends on a large number of factors; but from a simple perspective, during charge, the iron is first oxidized to sparingly soluble FeCl 2 at a potential near 2.34 V (vs. Na/Na + ) at 300 • C until "...

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Study of the Positive Electrode of a Na|Ni(Fe)-Chloride Cell

Zhu

Vallance

Rahimian

et al. 2015

J. Electrochem. Soc.

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“…However, the scarcity of the data meant it proved to be a challenging and time consuming process. The data-gathering phase focused on two main sources: archival journal articles (e.g., [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]), as well as 'grey' literature from the Internet [35]. LIB and LIP batteries were treated as a single technology during the present LCA study, due to their inherent similarity of these technologies in terms of their materials content.…”

Section: Inventory Analysismentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The environmental impacts of mining metal ores are a cause for concern particularly for battery technologies, such as Ni-Cd and to a lesser extent ZEBRA batteries, which use large proportions of mined metals (around 76% and 45% respectively [27]). The fact these battery technologies also require a relatively high mass of batteries compared to Li-Ion, and in turn a greater mass of metal, to achieve the requisite capacity is a notable disadvantage of NiCd and ZEBRA batteries.…”

Section: Acid Mine Drainage and The Impact Of Miningmentioning

confidence: 99%

Indicative energy technology assessment of advanced rechargeable batteries

2015

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h i g h l i g h t sSeveral 'Advanced Rechargeable Battery Technologies' (ARBT) have been evaluated. Energy, environmental, economic, and technical appraisal techniques were employed. Li-Ion Polymer (LIP) batteries exhibited the most attractive energy and power metrics. Lithium-Ion batteries (LIB) and LIP batteries displayed the lowest CO 2 and SO 2 emissions per kW h. Comparative costs for LIB, LIP and ZEBRA batteries were estimated against Nickel-Cadmium cells. a b s t r a c tSeveral 'Advanced Rechargeable Battery Technologies' (ARBT) have been evaluated in terms of various energy, environmental, economic, and technical criteria. Their suitability for different applications, such as electric vehicles (EV), consumer electronics, load levelling, and stationary power storage, have also been examined. In order to gain a sense of perspective regarding the performance of the ARBT [including Lithium-Ion batteries (LIB), Li-Ion Polymer (LIP) and Sodium Nickel Chloride (NaNiCl) {or 'ZEBRA'} batteries] they are compared to more mature Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries. LIBs currently dominate the rechargeable battery market, and are likely to continue to do so in the short term in view of their excellent all-round performance and firm grip on the consumer electronics market. However, in view of the competition from Li-Ion Polymer their long-term future is uncertain. The high charge/discharge cycle life of Li-Ion batteries means that their use may grow in the electric vehicle (EV) sector, and to a lesser extent in load levelling, if safety concerns are overcome and costs fall significantly. LIP batteries exhibited attractive values of gravimetric energy density, volumetric energy density, and power density. Consequently, they are likely to dominate the consumer electronics market in the long-term, once mass production has become established, but may struggle to break into other sectors unless their charge/discharge cycle life and cost are improved significantly. ZEBRA batteries are presently one of the technologies of choice for EV development work. Nevertheless, compared to other ARBT, such batteries only represent an incremental step forward in terms of energy and environmental performance.

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The Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery

Ottaviani¹,

Turconi²,

Basso³

2020

Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry

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Na–NiCl 2 thermal batteries have been developed for applications such as electric energy backup, energy storage, and automotive application. A typical Na–NiCl 2 battery consists of a molten sodium anode, a solid‐state electrolyte (β″‐alumina), and a secondary liquid electrolyte (NaAlCl 4 ) in the cathode side, with NiCl 2 as the active cathode materials. These systems, operating at high temperatures (about 270–350 °C), provide a battery completely independent of ambient temperature with high specific energy and high specific power. Special characteristics such as relatively low cost, long deep cycle life, long‐term cold‐storage life, abuse resistant, zero electrical self‐discharge, maintenance free, and safety place this technology as the best choice where environmentally strong conditions are present and other secondary battery systems fail.

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ZEBRA batteries, enhanced power by doping

Cited by 42 publications

References 1 publication

Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Study of the Positive Electrode of a Na|Ni(Fe)-Chloride Cell

Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Study of the Positive Electrode of a Na|Ni(Fe)-Chloride Cell

Indicative energy technology assessment of advanced rechargeable batteries

The Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery

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