Zoonotic Origins of Human Metapneumovirus: A Journey from Birds to Humans

Abstract

Metapneumoviruses, members of the family Pneumoviridae, have been identified in birds (avian metapneumoviruses; AMPV’s) and humans (human metapneumoviruses; HMPV’s). AMPV and HMPV are closely related viruses with a similar genomic organization and cause respiratory tract illnesses in birds and humans, respectively. AMPV can be classified into four subgroups, A–D, and is the etiological agent of turkey rhinotracheitis and swollen head syndrome in chickens. Epidemiological studies have indicated that AMPV also circulates in wild bird species which may act as reservoir hosts for novel subtypes. HMPV was first discovered in 2001, but retrospective studies have shown that HMPV has been circulating in humans for at least 50 years. AMPV subgroup C is more closely related to HMPV than to any other AMPV subgroup, suggesting that HMPV has evolved from AMPV-C following zoonotic transfer. In this review, we present a historical perspective on the discovery of metapneumoviruses and discuss the host tropism, pathogenicity, and molecular characteristics of the different AMPV and HMPV subgroups to provide increased focus on the necessity to better understand the evolutionary pathways through which HMPV emerged as a seasonal endemic human respiratory virus.

An Unusual Resurgence of Human Metapneumovirus in Western Australia Following the Reduction of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions to Prevent SARS-CoV-2 Transmission

“…hMPV can be divided into four major genetic lineages (A1, A2, B1 and B2) [ 8 ]. The A2 lineage is the most genetically diverse and is further divided into A2a, A2b1 and A2b2.…”

Molecular characterization of avian metapneumovirus subtype C detected in wild mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) in The Netherlands

“…The American lineage of AMPV‐C was first detected in commercial turkey farms in the United States in 1996 (Kleven, 1997; Senne et al., 1997) with infections reported in multiple states including Colorado and later also in Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, and Wisconsin (Bennett et al., 2004; Goyal et al., 2000). Multiple reports of AMPV‐C infection of wild bird species has also been reported in the United States and Canada (Jesse et al., 2022), including a variety of duck species, snow geese ( Anser caerulescens ), Canada geese ( Branta Canadensis ), ring‐billed gulls ( Larus delawarensis ), house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ), barn swallow ( Hirundo rustica ), European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), and the blue‐winged teal ( Spatula discors ) (Bennett et al., 2002, 2004; Jardine et al., 2018; Shin et al., 2000). Two AMPV‐C strains isolated from pheasants in a live bird market in Korea were also found to display a high level of sequence identity to American lineage strains (Lee et al., 2007).…”

“…The American lineage of AMPV-C was first detected in commercial turkey farms in the United States in 1996 (Kleven, 1997;Senne et al, 1997) with infections reported in multiple states including Colorado and later also in Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, and Wisconsin (Bennett et al, 2004;Goyal et al, 2000). Multiple reports of AMPV-C infection of wild bird species has also been reported in the United States and Canada (Jesse et al, 2022), including a variety of duck species, snow geese (Anser caerulescens),…”

Whole genome sequencing of Avian metapneumovirus type B genomes directly from clinical samples collected from chickens in live bird markets using multiplex tiling RT-PCR method

“…Different types of AMPVs have been classified based on the nucleotide sequence divergence of the attachment glycoprotein (G) and antigenic differences between strains (5). Types A and B are found all around the world, and type C was reported in North America, China, and South Korea, and in a retrospective study in France in 1990 (6).…”

“…Types A and B are found all around the world, and type C was reported in North America, China, and South Korea, and in a retrospective study in France in 1990 (6). Type D was reported only once in a turkey flock in France in 1985 (5,7). AMPV types A, B, and C have been detected in South Korea; the type A and B in poultry farms and the type C from pheasants in live bird markets (6,8,9).…”