This review describes recent groundbreaking results in Si, Si/SiGe and dopant-based quantum dots, and it highlights the remarkable advances in Si-based quantum physics that have occurred in the past few years. This progress has been possible thanks to materials development of Si quantum devices, and the physical understanding of quantum effects in silicon. Recent critical steps include the isolation of single electrons, the observation of spin blockade and single-shot read-out of individual electron spins in both dopants and gated quantum dots in Si. Each of these results has come with physics that was not anticipated from previous work in other material systems. These advances underline the significant progress towards the realization of spin quantum bits in a material with a long spin coherence time, crucial for quantum computation and spintronics.

Quantum computation requires qubits that can be coupled and realized in a scalable manner, together with universal and high-fidelity one-and two-qubit logic gates [1, 2]. Strong effort across several fields have led to an impressive array of qubit realizations, including trapped ions [4], superconducting circuits [5], single photons [3], single defects or atoms in diamond [6,7] and silicon [8], and semiconductor quantum dots [4], all with single qubit fidelities exceeding the stringent thresholds required for fault-tolerant quantum computing [10]. Despite this, high-fidelity two-qubit gates in the solid-state that can be manufactured using standard lithographic techniques have so far been limited to superconducting qubits [5], as semiconductor systems have suffered from difficulties in coupling qubits and dephasing [11][12][13]. Here, we show that these issues can be eliminated altogether using single spins in isotopically enriched silicon [14] by demonstrating single-and two-qubit operations in a quantum dot system using the exchange interaction, as envisaged in the original Loss-DiVincenzo proposal [2]. We realize CNOT gates via either controlled rotation (CROT) or controlled phase (CZ) operations combined with single-qubit operations. Direct gate-voltage control provides single-qubit addressability, together with a switchable exchange interaction that is employed in the two-qubit CZ gate. The speed of the two-qubit CZ operations is controlled electrically via the detuning energy and we find that over 100 two-qubit gates can be performed within a two-qubit coherence time of 8 µs, thereby satisfying the criteria required for scalable quantum computation.Quantum dots have high potential as a qubit platform [2]. Large arrays can be conveniently realized using conventional lithographic approaches, while reading, initializing, controlling and coupling can be done purely by electrical means. Early research focussed mainly on III-V semiconductor compounds such as GaAs, resulting in single spin qubits [15], singlet-triplet qubits [16] and exchange only qubits [17], which can be coupled capacitively [11] or via the exchange interaction [12,13]. While these approaches demonstrate the potential of quantum dot qubits, strong dephasing due to the nuclear spin background have limited the quality of the quantum operations. A strong improvement in coherence times has been observed by defining the quantum dots in silicon [18,19], which can be isotopically purified [14], such that quantum dots with single spin fidelities above the threshold of surface codes [10] can be realized [4].A scalable approach towards quantum computation ideally requires that the coupling between qubits can be turned on and off [1], so that single and two-qubit operations can be selectively chosen. Here, we demonstrate this by realizing a CZ gate, which is commonly used in superconducting qubits [5] and has been theoretically discussed for quantum dot systems [20]. This two-qubit gate, together with single-qubit gates provides all of the necessary opera...

Exciting progress towards spin-based quantum computing [1,2] has recently been made with qubits realized using nitrogen-vacancy (N-V) centers in diamond and phosphorus atoms in silicon [3], including the demonstration of long coherence times made possible by the presence of spin-free isotopes of carbon [4] and silicon [5]. However, despite promising single-atom nanotechnologies [6], there remain substantial challenges in coupling such qubits and addressing them individually. Conversely, lithographically defined quantum dots have an exchange coupling that can be precisely engineered1, but strong coupling to noise has severely limited their dephasing times and control fidelities. Here we combine the best aspects of both spin qubit schemes and demonstrate a gate-addressable quantum dot qubit in isotopically engineered silicon with a control fidelity of 99.6%, obtained via Clifford based randomized benchmarking and consistent with that required for fault-tolerant quantum computing [7,8]. This qubit has orders of magnitude improved coherence times compared with other quantum dot qubits, with T * 2 = 120 µs and T2 = 28 ms. By gate-voltage tuning of the electron g * -factor, we can Stark shift the electron spin resonance (ESR) frequency by more than 3000 times the 2.4 kHz ESR linewidth, providing a direct path to large-scale arrays of addressable high-fidelity qubits that are compatible with existing manufacturing technologies.The seminal work by Loss and DiVincenzo[1] to encode quantum information using the spin states of semiconductor quantum dots generated great excitement, as it fulfilled what were then understood to be the key criteria[2] for quantum computation, and has already led to the realization of 2-qubit operations such as the √ SWAP[9, 10] and CPHASE [11]. However, the limited lifetime and the associated fidelity of the quantum state represent a significant hurdle for the semiconductor quantum dot qubits realized thus far. A dephasing time up to T * 2 = 37 ns [12], improved to T * 2 = 94 ns[13] using nuclear spin bath control, has been recorded for quantum dot spin qubits in GaAs/AlGaAs. A longer T * 2 = 360 ns has been achieved using Si/SiGe quantum dots [14]. The main strategy to improve these times has involved applying pulse sequences developed for bulk magnetic resonance, and we can specify a T 2 according to the applied pulse sequence. Using a Hahn echo sequence the coherence time of GaAs-based qubits has been extended to T 28 Si), we remove the dephasing effect of the nuclear spin bath present in these previous studies, and show that all of the above coherence times can be improved by orders of magnitude. These long coherence times, in particular the dephasing time T * 2 , lead to low control error rates and the high fidelities that will be required for large-scale, fault tolerant quantum computing [7,8].In contrast with quantum dots, electron spin qubits localized on atoms or defects have been realized in almost spinfree environments, showing coherence times approaching [4] and even exceeding seco...