In this review, we document the historical and cultural shifts in how gay and bisexual men have used the Internet for sexuality between the 1990s and 2013. Over that time, gay and bisexual men have rapidly taken to using the Internet for sexual purposes: sexual health information seeking, finding sex partners, dating, cybersex, and pornography. Gay and bisexual men have adapted to the ever-evolving technological advances that have been made in connecting users to the Internet—from logging into the World Wide Web via dial-up modem on a desktop computer to geo-social and sexual networking via a handheld device. In kind, researchers too have adapted to the Internet to study gay and bisexual men, though not at the same rapid pace at which technology (and its users) have advanced. Studies have carefully considered the ethics, feasibility, and acceptability of using the Internet to conduct research and interventions with gay and bisexual men. Much of this work has been grounded in models of disease prevention, largely as a result of the ongoing HIV/AIDS epidemic. The urgent need to reduce HIV in this population has been a driving force to develop innovative research and Internet-based intervention methodologies. Moving forward, a more holistic understanding of gay and bisexual men's sexual behavior might be warranted to address continued HIV and STI disparities. The Internet, and specifically mobile technology, is an environment gay and bisexual men are using for sexual purposes. These innovative technologies represent powerful resources for researchers to study and provide rapidly evolving outreach to gay and bisexual men.

With a national sample of 552 transgender adults, the present study tested hypotheses drawn from minority stress theory and positive psychology research on stress-ameliorating processes. Specifically, the present study examined the relations of minority stressors (i.e., antitransgender discrimination, stigma awareness, and internalized transphobia) and individual-and group-level buffers (i.e., resilience and collective action) of minority stress. As expected, each minority stressor was positively correlated with psychological distress. In terms of buffers, resilience-though not collective action-was negatively correlated with psychological distress. Additionally, stigma awareness-but not internalized transphobia-mediated the relation of antitransgender discrimination with higher psychological distress. Moderation analyses indicated that resilience did not moderate any of the relations of the minority stressors with psychological distress. However, contrary to prediction, collective action strengthened the positive relation of internalized transphobia with psychological distress. Furthermore, at high levels of collective action, internalized transphobia became a significant mediator of the discrimination-distress relation. Strategies for developing individual (e.g., resilience building strategies) and group-level (e.g., engagement in collective action) interventions targeted toward transgender individuals who experience discrimination are discussed.

Transgender women experience gender-based oppression that can take the form of sexual objectification and/or discrimination. These negative experiences may contribute to poorer mental health outcomes (i.e., body dissatisfaction) and physical health outcomes (i.e., disordered eating).

With a national sample of 304 transgender men, the present study tested a pantheoretical model of dehumanization (Moradi, 2013) with hypotheses derived from objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), minority stress theory (Meyer, 2003), and prior research regarding men's body image concerns. Specifically, we tested common objectification theory constructs (internalization of sociocultural standards of attractiveness [SSA], body surveillance, body satisfaction) as direct and indirect predictors of compulsive exercise. We also examined the roles of transgender-specific minority stress variables-antitransgender discrimination and transgender identity congruence-in the model. Results of a latent variable structural equation model yielded mixed support for the posited relations. The direct and indirect interrelations of internalization of SSA, body surveillance, and body satisfaction were consistent with prior objectification theory research, but only internalization of SSA yielded a significant direct relation with compulsive exercise. In addition, neither internalization of SSA nor body surveillance yielded significant indirect relations with compulsive exercise. However, antitransgender discrimination yielded predicted indirect relations with body surveillance, body satisfaction, and compulsive exercise, with transgender congruence playing a key mediating role in most of these relations. The implications of this pantheoretical model for research and practice with transgender men are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

With a United States-based sample of 326 sexual minority men, the present study tested hypotheses derived from objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), minority stress theory (e.g., Meyer, 2003), and prior research regarding men and body image (e.g., McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Specifically, we examined a path model wherein objectification constructs (internalized standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, body dissatisfaction, and drive for muscularity) and a minority stress variable (internalized heterosexism) were direct and indirect predictors of intention to use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and compulsive exercise. Results of the path model yielded adequate fit to the data. Regarding direct links, internalized heterosexism was correlated positively with internalized standards of attractiveness and related positively to body dissatisfaction, internalized standards of attractiveness related positively to drive for muscularity and body surveillance, and drive for muscularity related positively with intention to use AAS and compulsive exercise; internalized standards of attractiveness yielded a significant and positive indirect link to intention to use AAS through drive for muscularity. Implications of our findings, regarding the application and limitations of the objectification theory framework for research and practice with sexual minority men, are further discussed.