Ship-source greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions could increase by up to 250% by 2050 from their 2012 levels, owing to increasing global freight volumes. Binding international legal agreements to regulate GHGs, however, are lacking as technical solutions remain expensive, and crucial industrial support is absent. In 2003, the International Maritime Organization adopted Resolution A.963 (23) to regulate shipping CO emissions via technical, operational, and market-based routes. However, progress has been slow and uncertain; there is no concrete emission reduction target or definitive action plan. Yet, a full-fledged roadmap may not even emerge until 2023. In this policy analysis, we revisit the progress of technical, operational, and market-based routes and the associated controversies. We argue that 1) a performance-based index, though good-intentioned, has loopholes affecting meaningful CO emission reductions driven by technical advancements; 2) using slow steaming to cut energy consumption stands out among all operational solutions thanks to its immediate and obvious results, but with the already slow speed in practice, this single source has limited emission reduction potential; 3) without a technology-savvy shipping industry, a market-based approach is essentially needed to address the environmental impact. To give shipping a 50:50 chance for contributing fairly and proportionately to keep global warming below 2°C, deep emission reductions should occur soon.

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This review paper investigates and presents generalized answers to the two basic questions of port governance, namely how to govern and for what purpose. The study is based on a total sample of 118 studies on port governance. The results from the analysis of these studies show that port devolution and port re-centralization are the main governance tools at the institutional level. At the strategical level, the main governance tools are port co-opetition, port regionalization, port integration, stakeholder management strategy, and corporate governance. While at the managerial level, the main governance tools are port pricing, port concession, port user/ customer relationship management, monitoring and measuring, regulatory control, port security management, and information and communication technologies. The institutional governance tools are generally used by governmental organizations to set the fundamental regulative rules for the port governance system, while strategical tools are applied by port organizations in gaining competitive advantages and increasing market share in the long term. Managerial tools are related to the port business operations and management. Furthermore, The study clearly shows that the main objective of port governance is the improvement of port efficiency and port effectiveness. However, the choice of efficiency-oriented or effectiveness-oriented configuration is largely determined by the port organization's external operating environment, strategies and structures.

SUSTAINABILITY Current food metrics are reductive and distorting p.33 DEVELOPMENT A research agenda for shifting the food system towards nutrition p.30 S ea freight carries more than 90% of global trade -and thousands of unwelcome passengers. The ballast water that stabilizes marine vessels is the greatest source of harmful bacteria and invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. About 10 billion tonnes of ballast are transported globally each year, with 7,000 species carried onboard every day 1 . This is damaging marine biodiversity and public health. For example, the imported Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) is endangering native European and North American crayfish and salmon. Transported algae can seed blooms that smother or poison aquatic life, contaminate seafood and foul drinking water 2 . As the world's shipping lanes expand into a warmer Arctic, invasive species will spread to waters that were previously unreachable 3 . Managing ballast discharge requires worldwide legislation and enforcement. International shipping traverses the high seas, where there is no local jurisdiction. A vessel registered in one country can operate thousands of kilometres away.Global action has been slow. The 8 September accession of Finland to the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments ended a 27-year slog to bring the treaty into force Hong Kong offers subsidies and reduced berthing fees for ships that switch to low-sulfur fuel in its harbour. Four routes to better maritime governanceChallenges in preventing pollution from ballast water highlight reforms needed in global shipping regulation, write Zheng Wan and colleagues. COMMENT © 2 0 1 6 M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h e r s L i m i t e d , p a r t o f S p r i n g e r N a t u r e . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .

Bun M. J. G. and El Makhloufi A. (2007) Dynamic externalities, local industrial structure and economic development: panel data evidence for Morocco, Regional Studies 41, 823-837. The impact of industrial structure on local economic development is analysed for the case of Morocco. Using annual data for six urban areas and 18 industrial sectors indicators for specialization, diversity and competition of firms within a particular region are constructed for the years 1985-1995. The effects of these and other explanatory variables on local economic activity are estimated using a dynamic panel data model with both individual and time-specific effects. The estimation results suggest significant positive specialization and diversity effects and significant negative competition effects asserting the importance of industrial structure for local economic development. The empirical evidence is robust to the measure of economic activity used in the analysis, i.e. either employment or value added. A similar analysis is conducted restricting the space to the region of Casablanca. Using data on seven districts and 18 sectors for the period 1992-1995 again significant externalities are found within this specific region. Bun M. J. G. et El Makhloufi A. (2007) Les effets externes dynamiques, la structure industrielle locale et le developpement economique: des donnees permanentes pour le Maroc, Regional Studies 41, 823-837. Cet article cherche a analyser l'impact de la structure industrielle sur le developement economique local au Maroc. A partir des donnees annuelles aupres de 6 zones urbaines et 18 secteurs industriels, on construit des indicateurs de specialisation, de diversite et de competition pour les entreprises situees au sein d'une region donnee entre 1985 et 1995. Employant un modele dynamique fonde sur des donnees permanentes et dote des effets individuels et decales dans le temps, on estime l'impact de ces variables-la et des autres variables explicatives sur l'activite economique locale. Les estimations laissent supposer d'importants effets de specialisation et de diversite positifs et d'importants effets de competition negatifs, ce qui affirme le role cle de la structure industrielle pour ce qui est du developpement economique local. Les preuves empiriques confirment la mesure de l'activite economique employee dans cette analyse; a savoir, soit l'emploi, soit la valeur ajoutee. Une analyse similaire est faite en limitant l'espace a la region de Casablanca. A partir des donnees aupres de 7 districts et de 18 secteurs entre 1992 et 1995, il s'avere d'importants effets externes au sein de cette region ainsi delimitee. Effets externes dynamiques Modele dynamique fonde sur des donneespermanentes Structure industrielle locale Developpement economique regional Bun M. J. G. und El Makhloufi A. (2007) Dynamische Externalitaten, lokale Industriestruktur und Wirtschaftsentwicklung: Paneldata-Belege fur Marokko, Regional Studies 41, 823-837. Die Auswirkung der industriellen Struktur auf die lokale Wirtschaftsentwicklung wird fur ...