Summary Background Efforts to quantify the global burden of enteric fever are valuable for understanding the health lost and the large-scale spatial distribution of the disease. We present the estimates of typhoid and paratyphoid fever burden from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2017, and the approach taken to produce them. Methods For this systematic analysis we broke down the relative contributions of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers by country, year, and age, and analysed trends in incidence and mortality. We modelled the combined incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers and split these total cases proportionally between typhoid and paratyphoid fevers using aetiological proportion models. We estimated deaths using vital registration data for countries with sufficiently high data completeness and using a natural history approach for other locations. We also estimated disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. Findings Globally, 14·3 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 12·5–16·3) cases of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers occurred in 2017, a 44·6% (42·2–47·0) decline from 25·9 million (22·0–29·9) in 1990. Age-standardised incidence rates declined by 54·9% (53·4–56·5), from 439·2 (376·7–507·7) per 100 000 person-years in 1990, to 197·8 (172·0–226·2) per 100 000 person-years in 2017. In 2017, Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi caused 76·3% (71·8–80·5) of cases of enteric fever. We estimated a global case fatality of 0·95% (0·54–1·53) in 2017, with higher case fatality estimates among children and older adults, and among those living in lower-income countries. We therefore estimated 135·9 thousand (76·9–218·9) deaths from typhoid and paratyphoid fever globally in 2017, a 41·0% (33·6–48·3) decline from 230·5 thousand (131·2–372·6) in 1990. Overall, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers were responsible for 9·8 million (5·6–15·8) DALYs in 2017, down 43·0% (35·5–50·6) from 17·2 million (9·9–27·8) DALYs in 1990. Interpretation Despite notable progress, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers remain major causes of disability and death, with billions of people likely to be exposed to the pathogens. Although improvements in water and sanitation remain essential, increased vaccine use (including with typhoid conjugate vaccines that are effective in infants and young children and protective for longer periods) and improved data and surveillance to inform vaccine rollout are likely to drive the greatest improvements in the global burden of the disease. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

BackgroundTuberculosis (TB) is a global burden with one –third of the world’s population infected with the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and annually 1.4 million deaths occur due to the disease. This high incidence of infection and the increased rate of multi-drug resistant and extensively-drug resistant strains of the organism further complicated the problem of TB control and have called for an urgent need to develop new anti-TB drugs from plants. In this study, the in vitro activity of root of Calpurnia aurea, seeds of Ocimum basilicum, leaves of Artemisia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were evaluated against M. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains.MethodsFive Ethiopian medicinal plants, root of Calpurnia aurea, seeds of Ocimum basilicum, leaves of Artemisia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis used locally for the management of TB. They were investigated for in vitro antimycobacterial activity against M. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains. 80% methanolic extracts of the plant materials were obtained by maceration. The antimycobacterial activity was determined using 96 wells of microplate with the help of visual Resazurin Microtiter Assay.ResultsThe crude 80% methanolic extracts of the root of C. aurea, seeds of O. basilicum, and leaves of A. abyssinica, C. macrostachyus, and E. camaldulensis had anti-mycobacterial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 6.25–100 μg/mL. The MIC of 80% methanol extracts in the order mentioned above ranged 25-100 μg/ml and 12.5-75 μg/mL, 25–100 μg/mL and 25–50 μg/mL, 6.25-50 μg/mL and 12.5-50 μg/mL, 12.5-100 μg/mL and 18.25-50 μg/mL and 6.25-50 μg/mL and 12.5-50 μg/mL, respectively for M. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains.ConclusionsThe results support the local use of these plants in the treatment of TB and it is suggested that these plants may have therapeutic value in the treatment of TB. However, further investigations are needed on isolating chemical constituents responsible for eliciting the observed activity in these plants.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector-borne protozoan neglected tropical disease. In some parts of Ethiopia, it is a public health problem and its main causative agent is the Leishmania donovani complex. The objective of the study was to determine the seroprevalence of VL and factors associated among the asymptomatic pastoral community of Dire District, Borena Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. A community-based study was conducted among 432 pastoralist communities from June to July 2021. A systematic random sampling method was used to select households. Pretested structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews were used to collect data. A single finger-prick blood sample was collected and tested for Leishmania donovani complex using an immune-chromatographic test (rk39-ICT). A logistic regression model was used to assess factors associated with VL infection and a p-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. A total of 432 study participants were included (their mean age was 26.69) and 218 (50.5%) were females. The overall seroprevalence of VL was 33/432(7.6%) (95%CI: 5.32–15.60). Sero-prevalence was significantly associated with high family size (>5) (adjusted odds ratios (AOR) = 5.134; 95% CI: 2.032–9.748), sleeping or/and staying under acacia tree (AOR = 2.984; 95%CI = 1.074–8.288), presence of cracked house walls (AOR = 1.801; 95%CI: 1.026–4.926), presence of termite hills (AOR = 1.938; 95%CL: 1.002–7.050), availability of water points (AOR = 3.893; 95%CI: 1.034–7.426) and presence of domestic animals (AOR = 2.124; 95% CI: 2.341–5.108). It is recommended that community awareness on the transmission and prevention methods of Leishmania donovani complex and taking appropriate interventions on the identified factors play a greater role to prevent and control infection in the area. Further investigation is also needed to characterize the pathogens and risk factors and tackle the problem.