Adaptation strategies to reduce smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate variability and seasonality 38 are needed given the frequency of extreme weather events predicted to increase during the next 39 decades in Sub--Saharan Africa, particularly in West Africa. We explored the linkages between selected 40 agricultural adaptation strategies (crop diversity, soil and water conservation, trees on farm, small 41 ruminants, improved crop varieties, fertilizers), food security, farm household characteristics and farm 42 productivity in three contrasting agro--ecological sites in West Africa (Burkina Faso, Ghana and Senegal). 43Differences in land area per capita and land productivity largely explained the variation in food security 44 across sites. Based on land size and market orientation, four household types were distinguished 45 (subsistence, diversified, extensive, intensified), with contrasting levels of food security and agricultural 46 adaptation strategies. Income increased steadily with land size, and both income and land productivity 47 increased with degree of market orientation. The adoption of agricultural adaptation strategies was 48 widespread, although the intensity of practice varied across household types. Adaptation strategies 49 improve the food security status of some households, but not all. Some strategies had a significant 50 positive impact on land productivity, while others reduced vulnerability resulting in a more stable cash 51 flow throughout the year. Our results show that for different household types, different adaptation 52 strategies may be 'climate--smart'. The typology developed in this study gives a good entry point to 53 analyse which practices should be targeted to which type of smallholder farmers, and quantifies the 54 effect of adaptation options on household food security. Subsequently, it will be crucial to empower 55 farmers to access, test and modify these adaptation options, if they were to achieve higher levels of 56 food security. 57 58 59

Agricultural practices have constantly changed in West Africa, and understanding the factors that have driven the changes may help guide strategies to promote sustainable agriculture in the region. To contribute to such efforts, this paper analyzes drivers of change in farming practices in the region using data obtained from surveys of 700 farming households in five countries (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Senegal). The results showed that farmers have adopted various practices in response to the challenges they have faced during the last decade. A series of logit models showed that most changes farmers made to their practices are undertaken for multiple reasons. Land use and management changes including expanding farmed areas and using mineral fertilization and manure are positively related to perceived changes in the climate, such as more erratic rainfall. Planting new varieties, introducing new crops, crop rotation, expanding farmed area and using pesticides are positively associated with new market opportunities. Farm practices that require relatively high financial investment such as use of pesticides, droughttolerant varieties and improved seeds were positively associated with the provision of technical and financial support for farmers through development projects and Editor: Nicolas Dendoncker. Electronic supplementary material 123Reg Environ Change (2017) 17:437-449 DOI 10.1007/s10113-016-1029 policies. Changes in markets and climate are both helping to promote needed changes in farming practices in West Africa. Therefore, policies that foster the development of markets for agricultural products, and improved weatherand climate-related information linked to knowledge of appropriate agricultural innovations in different environments are needed.

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