The study quantified rainfall variability for March-May (MAM) and October-December (OND) seasons in Tharaka district, Kenya. The parameters analysed were inter-annual variability of seasonal rainfall, onset and cessation using daily rainfall data in three agro-ecological zones' stations. Percentage mean cumulative method was used to determine onset and cessation, and seasonal variability was estimated using rainfall variability indices. Although both seasons are highly variable, OND has been persistently below mean over time while MAM shows high within-season variability. Despite the near uniformity in the mean onset and cessation dates, the former is highly variable on an inter-annual scale. The two rainfall seasons are inherently dissimilar and therefore require specific cropping in agro-ecological zone LM4 and LM4-5. It is possible that farmers in IL5 are missing an opportunity by under-utilising MAM rainfall. The results should be incorporated in implications of climate variability and vulnerability assessment in semi-arid Tharaka district.

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This study investigates the hydrogeochemical and anthropogenic factors that control groundwater quality in an Upper Precambrian sedimentary aquifer in the northwestern Burkina Faso. The raw data and statistical and geochemical modeling results were used to identify the sources of major ions in dug well, private borewell and tap water samples. Tap waters were classified as Ca-HCO 3 and Ca-Mg-HCO 3 types, reflecting the weathering of the local dolomitic limestones and silicate minerals. Dug well waters, with a direct contact with various sources of contamination, were classified as Ca-Na-K-HCO 3 type. Two factors that explain 94% of the total variance suggested that water-rock interaction was the most important factor controlling the groundwater chemistry. Factor 1 had high loadings on pH, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , HCO 3 − , SO 4 2− and TDS. These variables were also strongly correlated indicating their common geogenic sources. Based on the HCO 3 − /(HCO 3 − + SO 4 2−) ratios (0.8-0.99), carbonic acid weathering appeared to control Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , HCO 3 − and SO 4 2− acquisition in the groundwater. With relatively lower Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ concentrations, the majority of dug well and borewell waters were soft to moderately hard, whereas tap waters were considered very hard. Thus, the dug well and, to a lesser extent, borewell waters are likely to have a low buffering capacity. Factor 2 had high loadings on Na + , NO 3 − and Cl −. The strong correlation between Na + and NO 3 − and Cl − implied that factor 2 represented the anthropogenic contribution to the groundwater chemistry. In contrast, K + had moderate loadings on factors 1 and 2, consistent with its geogenic and anthropogenic sources. The study demonstrated that waters from dug wells and borewells were bacteriologically unsafe for human consumption, and their low buffering capacity may favor mobility of potentially toxic heavy metals in the aquifer. Not only very hard tap waters have aesthetic inconvenient, but their consumption may also pose health problems.