Neurosurgery is one of the most demanding surgical specialties in terms of precision requirements and surgical field limitations. Recent advancements in robotic technology have generated the possibility of incorporating advanced technological tools to the neurosurgical operating room. Although previous studies have addressed the specific details of new robotic systems, there is very little literature on the strengths and drawbacks of past attempts, currently available platforms and prototypes in development. In this review, the authors present a critical historical analysis of the development of robotic technology in neurosurgery as well as a comprehensive summary of the currently available systems that can be expected to be incorporated to the neurosurgical armamentarium in the near future. Finally, the authors present a critical analysis of the main technical challenges in robotic technology development at the present time (such as the design of improved systems for haptic feedback and the necessity of incorporating intraoperative imaging data) as well as the benefits which robotic technology is expected to bring to specific neurosurgical subspecialties in the near future.

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Background Music has been associated with therapeutic properties for thousands of years across a vast number of diverse regions and cultures. This study expands upon our current understanding of music’s influence on human neurophysiology by investigating the effects of various music genres on cerebral cortex activity using electroencephalography (EEG). Methods A randomized, controlled study design was used. EEG data were recorded from 23 healthy adults, aging 18–29 years, while listening to a music sequence consisting of five randomized songs and two controls. The five studied music genres include: Classical, Tribal Downtempo, Psychedelic Trance (Psytrance), Goa Trance, and Subject Choice. Results Controls were most strongly associated with relative decreases in beta frequencies and increases in alpha frequencies. Psytrance was most strongly associated with relative increases in theta and delta frequencies. The lowest relative percentages of beta frequencies and highest relative percentages of alpha frequencies occurred in the occipital and parietal regions. The highest relative percentages of theta and delta frequencies occurred in the frontal and temporal regions. Subjects with prior music training exhibited relative increases in delta frequencies in the frontal region. Subject gender and music preferences did not have a significant influence on EEG activity. Conclusions Findings from this study support those of previous music therapy studies and provide novel insights regarding music’s influence on human neurophysiology. Our findings also support the hypothesis that music may promote changes in cerebral cortex activity that has similarities to non-rapid eye movement sleep, while the listener remains awake.