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BackgroundPast research has identified pronounced regional disparities in use of different opioids but less is known for codeine. The primary objective of this study was to analyze the trends of distribution of prescriptions containing codeine in the United States (US) from 2010 to 2019. In addition, this study aimed to identify regional disparities in prescribed milligrams of codeine per person in 2019 and identify any unusual states.MethodsThe distribution of codeine via pharmacies, hospitals, and practitioners in kilograms was obtained from the Drug Enforcement Administration’s Automated Reports and Consolidated Ordering System (ARCOS) from 2010 to 2019. In addition, the number of prescriptions of codeine per 1,000 Medicaid enrollees was obtained from the State Drug Utilization Database.ResultsThe total grams of codeine decreased (−25.0%) through all distributors from 2010 to 2019. The largest increase in total grams of codeine distributed between two consecutive years (2014 to 2015) was +28.9%. For a given distributor type, the largest decrease from 2010 to 2019 was hospitals (−89.6%). In 2019, the total mg of codeine per person distributed in Texas (11.46) was significantly higher relative to the national average (3.06, 1.88 SD). Codeine prescriptions to Medicaid patients peeked in the third quarter of 2016.ConclusionThe peak of prescription codeine in 2011 was consistent with the overall peak in prescription opioids, with a subsequent decrease over the decade. This could be explained by relatively recent recommendations regarding the therapeutic use of codeine and how other antitussive agents may be of better use. The precipitous rise of codeine in Texas that we observed has been recognized in prior studies. These state-level disparities warrant further attention by opioid stewardship committees.

:Orthopaedic surgery research increasingly utilizes statistical models to adjust for confounding, provide additional precision, and describe complex relationships. Traditionally, a statistical model is termed “multivariable” if it examines the relationship between multiple independent variables (e.g., covariables). The term “multivariate” is used to describe statistical models with multiple dependent variables (e.g., outcomes). The precise use of statistical terminology is important for study appraisal and reproducibility. The term “multivariate” is frequently used incorrectly in the orthopaedic literature to describe statistical models with a single dependent variable. In our analysis, we found that the term “multivariate” was used frequently, and in >90% of cases, the term was used to describe models that contain only a single dependent variable. Consistent with our perception, the terms “multivariable” and “multivariate” are not used with optimal precision. Below, we discuss the impact of the misuse of statistical terminology and present suggestions for improving statistical reporting.

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