Assisted reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination have delivered significant benefits for farm animal reproduction. However, as with humans, assisted reproduction in livestock requires the manipulation of the gametes and preimplantation embryo. The significance of this 'periconception' period is that it represents the transition from parental genome regulation to that of the newly formed embryo. Environmental perturbations during these early developmental stages can result in persistent changes in embryonic gene expression, fetal organ development and ultimately the long-term health of the offspring. While associations between maternal health and offspring wellbeing are well-defined, the significance of paternal health for the quality of his semen and the post-conception development of his offspring have largely been overlooked. Human and animal model studies have identified sperm epigenetic status (DNA methylation levels, histone modifications and RNA profiles) and seminal plasma-mediated maternal uterine immunological, inflammatory and vascular responses as the two central mechanisms capable of linking paternal health and post-fertilisation development. However, there is a significant knowledge gap about the father's contribution to the long-term health of his offspring, especially with regard to farm animals. Such insights are essential to ensure the safety of widely used assisted reproductive practices and to gain better understanding of the role of paternal health for the well-being of his offspring. In this article, we will outline the impact of male health on semen quality (both sperm and seminal plasma), reproductive fitness and post-fertilisation offspring development and explore the mechanisms underlying the paternal programming of offspring health in farm animals.

Pregnancy represents a time of dramatic physiological adaptation by the mother in which dramatic changes in maternal cardiovascular, metabolic and immune systems occur. These adaptations, initiated from the earliest stages of gestation, are crucial for the implantation and continued development of the embryo, the establishment of the placenta and the growth of the fetus. Impairments in the normal adaptation of the maternal cardiovascular, metabolic and immune systems underlie the aetiology of gestational disorders such as preeclampsia and gestational diabetes. Studies have shown that the development of such gestational complications not only affects the well-being of the mother but also the short- and long-term health of her offspring. While the connection between maternal lifestyle factors and the development of gestational disorders such as preeclampsia and gestational diabetes has been studied in detail, the link between a father’s lifestyle and the well-being of the mother during pregnancy has received less attention. In this review we will explore the evidence that a range of paternal factors, such as age and diet, at the time of conception can not only affect the development of his offspring, but also the well-being of the mother during pregnancy. In addition, we will examine the sperm- and seminal plasma-specific mechanisms that connect the health of the father with that of the mother and his offspring.