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The influence of landscape matrix on functional connectivity has been clearly established. Now methods to assess the effects of different land uses on species' movements are needed because current methods are often biased. The use of physiological parameters as indicators of the level of resistance to animal movement associated with different land uses (i.e., matrix resistance) could provide estimates of energetic costs and risks to animals migrating through the matrix. To assess whether corticosterone levels indicate matrix resistance, we conducted experiments on substrate choice and measured levels of corticosterone before and after exposure of toads (Bufo bufo) to 3 common substrates (ploughed soil, meadow, and forest litter). We expected matrix resistance and hormone levels to increase from forest litter (habitat of the toad) to meadows to ploughed soil. Adult toads had higher corticosterone levels on ploughed soil than on forest litter or meadow substrates. Hormone levels did not differ between forest litter and meadow. Toads avoided moving onto ploughed soil. Corticosterone levels in juvenile toads were not related to substrate type; however, hormone levels decreased as humidity increased. Juveniles, unlike adults, did not avoid moving over ploughed soil. The difference in responses between adult and juvenile toads may have been due to differences in experimental design (for juveniles, entire body used to measure corticosterone concentration; for adults, saliva alone); differences in the scale of sensory perception of the substrate (juveniles are much smaller than adults); or differences in cognitive processes between adult and juvenile toads. Adults probably had experience with different substrate types, whereas juveniles first emerging from the water probably did not. As a consequence, arable lands could act as ecological traps for juvenile toads.

Summary 1.Capturing the relative influence of landscape composition and configuration in real landscapes remains a challenge. Cost-distance modelling provides an interesting approach to the assessment of landscape complexity in a functional way. However, resistances allotted to landscape elements in cost-distance modelling frequently remain defined on the basis of expert advice. To overcome this weakness, we computed resistance coefficients without a priori knowledge through a calibration ⁄ validation method enabling us to test the impact of the matrix heterogeneity on the occurrence of the common toad Bufo bufo, the cycles of which imply migrations between complementary habitats. 2. We used cost-distance modelling to elaborate an integrative parameter of landscape composition and configuration in the form of a potential movement zone. We first applied a calibration procedure that systematically tested different resistance values for each landscape element with a large data set. The robustness of the calibrated resistances was then evaluated using two supplementary validation data sets from contrasted landscapes. Finally, in order to isolate the relative influence of landscape configuration, we compared the predictive power of the calibrated potential movement zone with that of landscape composition only. 3. The landscape matrix strongly influences common toad occurrence: selected resistances were low for forests and meadows and intermediate to high for crops. Within the two validation data sets, the potential movement zone was positively and significantly related to toad occurrence and had a better predictive power than landscape composition. 4. Synthesis and applications. This study provides a tool to manage landscape structure in accordance with the ecological requirements of amphibian populations, especially habitat complementation. This method has minimal biological information requirements and therefore could be widely used to investigate the crucial influence of landscape composition and configuration on a broad range of species, and to design functional ecological networks.

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