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--Introduction. To facilitate establishment of pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) cultivations in new areas, factors affecting its propagation by cuttings and seeds were studied. Materials and methods. Firstly, cuttings of (5, 15 and 25) cm length were tested in three substrates: peat moss (pm), peat moss and sand mix (1:1) (pm/sa) and sand (sa). Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) solutions were prepared at [0,5,10 or 15] mM dissolved in 70% ethanol. After the basal cuttings were dipped for 10 s in these IBA solutions, cuttings were planted in (pm/sa). After (1, 2 or 3) weeks, the cutting rooting, number and length of the developed roots were measured. Moreover, germination was tested at four temperatures [(16, 20, 24 and 28)°C] by placing seeds on wetted filter papers in Petri dishes. Light effect was tested at four white light intensities of (0, 500, 1000 or 2000) lx. Seed viability was tested at 24°C in darkness with 1000 seeds. The effect of (pm), (pm/sa) and (sa) was tested on germination and seedling growth. The percentage of germination, days to emergence and growth rate of seedlings were measured. Results and discussion. After two weeks, 25-cm pitaya cuttings rooted successfully in the three substrates, but the number and length of the developed roots were affected by the type of substrate. A significant effect of cutting size on root initiation, and number and length of the developed roots was found. IBA consistently improved rooting percentage and root number and length. Overall, 5-cm-long cuttings treated with IBA (10 mM) could be efficient at propagating pitaya. The seed viability was 83%. Germination, which varied between (71 and 83)% depending on the temperature, began after 6 days at (24 and 28)°C. Light intensity at (1000 or 2000) lx reduced seed germination. Potted seedlings grew successfully in the greenhouse. [(16, 20, 24 et 28)°C] en plaçant des graines en boîtes de Pétri sur du papier filtre mouillé. L'effet de la lumière a été évalué à quatre intensités de la lumière blanche [(0, 500, 1000 ou 2000) lx]. La viabilité des graines a été mesurée à 24°C, à l'obscurité, sur 1000 graines. L'effet des substrats (to), (to/sa) et (sa) a été testé sur la germination et la croissance des plantules. Le taux de germination, l'émergence et la croissance des plantules ont été mesurés. Résultats et discussion. En deux semaines, les boutures de pitaya de 25 cm se sont enracinées avec succès dans les trois substrats, mais le nombre et la longueur des racines développées ont différé selon le substrat. Un effet significatif de la taille de la bouture sur la formation de racines et sur le nombre et la longueur des racines déve-loppées a été trouvé. Le traitement à l'IBA a amélioré le taux d'enracinement, ainsi que le nombre et la longueur des racines. De façon générale, les boutures de 5 cm traitées avec 10 mM IBA pourraient être efficaces pour propager le pitaya. La viabilité des graines a été de 83 %. La germination, qui a varié de (71 à 83) % selon la température, a commencé après 6 jours à (24 et 28)°C. Une inte...

Labour productivity in Arab countries is low by international standards and this problem occurs in Arab countries both inside and outside Africa. There are 10 Arab countries in Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti and Comoros. Enhancing labour productivity is a major challenge for Arab countries. Improving labour productivity should increase competitiveness, economic growth, job availability and living standards. Key factors in low Arab labour productivity include weak education and training systems, a mismatch between training outputs and labour market demands, lack of technology and innovation and poor management of the workforce. This article seeks to put forward innovative education and training policies which can enhance labour productivity. It does so after examining Arab education and training systems and their links with industry. It is concluded that modern governance arrangements need to be applied in Arab universities. Universities need to be re‐envisioned so that curricula are market‐driven and bridge the gap between education supply and market demand. Entrepreneurial teaching and learning practices need to be emphasized and improved technical and vocational training should be a priority. The Arab countries also have to adopt responsive and practical strategies for research and development and link the research and development institutes to industry.

Extremely weak R&D has a negative impact on growth and development in Arab countries. Developing a better R&D strategy could enhance capacity and effectiveness of R&D. The failure of the previously developed strategies in Arab countries was due to lack of vision, incorrect identification of R&D priorities, and disregard consulting stakeholders. This article discusses the challenges of developing R&D national strategies in Arab countries including identifying R&D priorities, managing stakeholders, assessing the current situation of R&D, and defining objectives of the strategies.Des stratégies de R&D extrêmement faibles ont un impact négatif sur la croissance et le développement dans les pays arabes. L'élaboration d'une meilleure stratégie de R&D pourrait améliorer les capacités et l'efficacité du secteur R&D. L'échec des stratégies précédemment élaborées dans les pays arabes peut être attribué au manque de vision, à une identification incorrecte des priorités de la R&D et à la non-consultation des parties prenantes. Les défis à relever pour élaborer des stratégies nationales de R&D dans les pays arabes, y compris l'identification des priorités en R&D, la gestion des parties prenantes, l'évaluation de la situation actuelle en matière de R&D et la définition des objectifs des stratégies sont traités ici.En los países árabes, la extrema debilidad del sector de investigación y desarrollo (IyD) ha generado un impacto negativo en el crecimiento y en el desarrollo. La creación de una mejor estrategia a ser implementada en este sector fortalecería su capacidad y su eficacia. El fracaso de las estrategias establecidas anteriormente en estos países se atribuye a la falta de visión, a la incorrecta identificación de prioridades en torno a la IyD, y a la no realización de una consulta que posibilitara incorporar el sentir de los actores. El artículo aborda los retos a ser enfrentados a la hora de elaborar estrategias de IyD en estos países, entre los cuales se encuentra la identificación de prioridades al respecto, la gestión orientada hacia los actores, la valoración de la situación actual de la IyD, así como la definición de los objetivos buscados al implementar cierta estrategia.

Abstract. Purpose of science and technology (ST) in Arab countries is far from nourishing socio-economic development. The activities of ST in Arab countries were directed for prestige and propaganda rather than into socio-economic development. Arab countries have not produced a critical mass of full time equivalent researchers. The weaknesses of the national ST systems in the Arab region have drastically reduced the benefits derived from the investments made in economic infrastructure. The Arab countries need to adopt strategies to improve their ST capabilities in ways that promote the technological development necessary for sustained economic growth. Arab countries should not blindly imitate other countries, but should identify and leverage their own unique resources. All universities and research institutes in the region need to be re-envisioned. Research institute and university activities need to be market-driven. Initiatives targeting the networking between research and industry need to be developed. Monitoring the state of ST becomes a major challenge for the Arab countries in their endeavours for developing knowledge based economy. Each Arab country needs to establish and run its own ST national observatory. A proper ethics monitoring system needs to be developed. Developing and activating ethical code and strengthening research ethics committees will improve monitoring ethical issues which may arise in the course of work by the academic staff in the universities and research institutes. However, an ethics monitoring system needs to be kept rigorously outside the control of ST institutes. JEL classification: O32Key words: Arab, Middle East and North Africa, research and development, science and technology (ST), socio-economic development Background and justificationsMore than at any other time in their history, the Arab countries are contingent on the acquisition of technologies underpinning their economies. The realization of such technological achievement is not only possible, but also extremely urgent. In practice however, access to technology and new knowledge is limited by research and development constraints. On the other hand, companies, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), face challenges of