SummaryIllegal killing/taking of birds is a growing concern across the Mediterranean. However, there are few quantitative data on the species and countries involved. We assessed numbers of individual birds of each species killed/taken illegally in each Mediterranean country per year, using a diverse range of data sources and incorporating expert knowledge. We estimated that 11-36 million individuals per year may be killed/taken illegally in the region, many of them on migration. In each of Cyprus, Egypt, Italy, Lebanon and Syria, more than two million birds may be killed/taken on average each year. For species such as Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla , Common Quail Coturnix coturnix , Eurasian Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs , House Sparrow Passer domesticus and Song Thrush Turdus philomelos , more than one million individuals of each species are estimated to be killed/ taken illegally on average every year. Several species of global conservation concern are also reported to be killed/taken illegally in substantial numbers: Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata , Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca and Rock Partridge Alectoris graeca . Birds in the Mediterranean are illegally killed/taken primarily for food, sport and for use as cage-birds or decoys. At the 20 worst locations with the highest reported numbers, 7.9 million individuals may be illegally killed/ taken per year, representing 34% of the mean estimated annual regional total number of birds illegally killed/taken for all species combined. Our study highlighted the paucity of data on illegal killing/taking of birds. Monitoring schemes which use systematic sampling protocols are needed A-L. Brochet et al. 2 to generate increasingly robust data on trends in illegal killing/taking over time and help stakeholders prioritise conservation actions to address this international conservation problem. Large numbers of birds are also hunted legally in the region, but specific totals are generally unavailable. Such data, in combination with improved estimates for illegal killing/taking, are needed for robustly assessing the sustainability of exploitation of birds.

Habitat loss, fragmentation and urban expansion may drive some species to marginal habitats while others succeed in exploiting urban areas. Species that show dietary flexibility are more able to take advantage of human activities to supplement their diet with anthropogenically abundant and accessible resources. The Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) is an endangered species due to the loss of its habitat, and human pressure. The population of Gouraya National Park (Algeria) lives in a relictual habitat that constitutes about 0.6% of the species range. In addition, this population is a unique case where urban expansion favours contact zones between Barbary macaque habitats and a big city (Bejaia). We quantified the dietary composition of Gouraya macaques over an annual cycle with the objective to understand how diet flexibility of this species may help it adapt to a relictual habitat or cope with urban expansion. We recorded the phenology of plant species every month. This study shows that Gouraya macaques, compared to those living in other forest types of the distribution area, are under lower seasonal constraints. They consume a greater amount of fruit and seeds that are available throughout much of the year, and a lesser amount of costly to find and extract subterranean foods. Therefore the Gouraya relictual habitat appears as a favourable environment compared to other major habitats of that species. This study also shows that colonizing peri-urban zones increases the availability and species richness of diet resources for Barbary macaques as they consume more human foods and exotic plants than in farther sites. Adult males eat more human foods than adult females and immatures do. The exploitation of high-energy anthropogenic food could favour macaque population growth and expansion towards the city center associated with human/macaque conflicts. We recommend applying management actions to restore macaques back to their natural habitat.

For the period of 2001-2004, the detailed reaction of a waterbird community to dam building has been assessed in the Ichkeul National Park. Results showed that 71 species belonging to 8 orders were detected. Three herbivorous species were largely dominant: common coot (Fulica atra), common pochard (Aythya ferina), and Eurasian wigeon (Anas penelope). The three community parameters used in the analysis were: species richness, species abundance, and species diversity; which were significantly different between seasons. The wintering season was a key phase when the maximum values of these parameters were reached. This seasonal concentration of activity may be explained by migration. The upstream freshwater diversion was followed by a decrease in the annual abundance of the waterbird community due to the increasing salinity and the severe depletion of the swamp grass, Potamogeton (Potamogeton pectinatus). The total number of species was independent of the local conditions, and the annual variation was related to the number of uncommon species seen in each year.

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The mosaic of habitats in the Ichkeul National Park is frequently changing due to the variations in water conditions that had influenced the wintering strategy of waterbird populations. ). Results showed that in this area, the Greylag Goose was a regular winter visitor, typically from the beginning of October to the end of March, when food resources were totally exhausted in all marshes. Records of diurnal time budget revealed that feeding (43%) and sleeping (20%) dominated all other activities: walking, flying alertness, and preening. The food resource depletion might be the principal responsible for the total population size decreases, the behavioral changes, and the switch of habitats used by the considered species. This situation is a kind of alarm bell to indicate a perturbation of the habitats in the Ichkeul National Park. Therefore, it is essential to use appropriate management strategies to enhance the value of this area for the bio-indicator species, in particular Greylag Goose which is very sensitive to habitat changes.