Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) target the stratified epidermis, and can causes diseases ranging from benign condylomas to malignant tumors. Infections of HPVs in the genital tract are among the most common sexually transmitted diseases, and a major risk factor for cervical cancer. The virus targets epithelial cells in the basal layer of the epithelium, while progeny virions egress from terminally differentiated cells in the cornified layer, the surface layer of the epithelium. In infected basal cells, the virus maintains its genomic DNA at low-copy numbers, at which the viral productive lifecycle cannot proceed. Progression of the productive lifecycle requires differentiation of the host cell, indicating that there is tight crosstalk between viral replication and host differentiation programs. In this review, we discuss the regulation of the HPV lifecycle controlled by the differentiation program of the host cells.

Background/Aim: COVID-19 started to spread as a pandemic in December 2019 and COVID-19 vaccination has been initiated worldwide. The efficacy of vaccination has been scientifically proven, but it might cause axillary lymph node swelling. To diagnose patients with axillary lymph node swelling caused by COVID-19 vaccination, we herein reviewed existing literature on this symptom. Case Report: We report the case of a 70-year-old woman with a breast tumour. She had undergone cecum cancer surgery and regular computed tomography (CT). During breast tumour follow-up, she received scheduled CT that indicated severe axillary lymph node swelling mimicking breast cancer metastasis. We performed aspiration biopsy cytology of that lymph node, and determined this was not cancer metastasis but an effect of the COVID-19 vaccine. We confirmed this diagnosis at one month after computed tomography showed that the lymph node swelling had improved. Conclusion: Axillary lymph node swelling can occur after COVID-19 vaccination. Therefore, it is important to consider the effect of the COVID-19 vaccination on axillary lymph node swelling when diagnosing breast tumours.SARS-CoV-2 infection disease was first reported in Wuhan in December 2019 (1) and we are still in effect of this pandemic both in Japan and globally. Of note, cancer patient diagnoses and treatment are being formed under these pandemic conditions. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines were rapidly developed, including the mRNA vaccine ( 2), which has specific side-effects including fever, general fatigue, and upper arm swelling in the region of the vaccine injection.In Japan, the vaccination of medical staff and elderly people started in February 2021. Currently, there are increasing numbers of people who have received vaccination twice. Therefore, the chance of encountering double vaccinated people in daily clinical practice is increasing. There are some guidelines for the timing of the vaccine injection for cancer patients, such as the National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (3), but it is still not clear how these vaccines might influence cancer diagnosis and treatment, especially for breast cancer. Herein, we present a case with severe axillary lymph node swelling thought to be caused by the COVID-19 vaccine injection, which was similar to breast cancer metastasis observed by computed tomography (CT), and present a literature review of the effect of COVID-19 vaccination on axillary lymph nodes.

Background/Aim: COVID-19 vaccination is now performed in most of the world to limit the spread of the disease. The first mRNA vaccine was approved in clinical settings and has specific side effects including axillary lymph node swelling, which can be misdiagnosed as breast cancer metastasis. The timing of axillary lymph node swelling and its duration are unclear. Here, we present a Japanese case and review of the existing literature. Case Report: We report the case of a 67-year-old woman with breast calcification. She had regular follow ups in our hospital for this calcification and received ultrasonography of the breast and axilla at every visit. She visited 6 months before having her COVID-19 vaccination, and 7 days and 6 months after the first COVID-19 vaccination. She had a swollen axillary lymph node 7 days after the first vaccination, which although it was improved, remained for 6 months. Conclusion: Axillary lymph node swelling occurred 7 days after vaccination and remained up to 6 months after it.COVID-19 first occurred in Wuhan in December 2019 (1), and the pandemic continues to develop globally 2 years later. The new Omicron strain has been confirmed and a new wave of the pandemic is spreading. In Japan, "the 6th wave" has occurred in some prefectures. The Omicron strain can infect those who have received two COVID-19 vaccinations; therefore, the COVID-19 pandemic might continue in the near future.COVID-19 vaccination started in the late 2020 in some countries and in Japan in early 2021. Medical staff were vaccinated first followed by elderly people, and then adults in the general public. Most Japanese have received two vaccinations. Currently, a third vaccination is being offered.One of the COVID-19 vaccines available is an mRNA vaccine (2), which has been approved for the first time in a clinical setting, and in Japan only the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine was initially used. It has specific side effects, such as fatigue, fever, injection site swelling, and axillary lymph node swelling, which can be confusing for breast oncologists. Previous studies reported axillary lymph node swelling after vaccination; however, when the swelling occurs or is cleared remains unclear. We experienced a case who had received COVID-19 vaccination whose axillary lymph node situation was assessed by ultrasonography continuously during breast calcification follow up during the pandemic. Here, we report this case and provide a literature review about the influence of the COVID-19 vaccine on axillary lymph nodes.

Background/Aim: COVID-19 has been a global pandemic for more than 2 years, and vaccination against COVID-19 using an mRNA vaccine is widespread. The COVID-19 vaccination can cause specific side-effects, such as axillary lymph node swelling; therefore, breast oncologists should pay attention to such occurrences. Initially, only two COVID-19 vaccinations were planned; however, in some countries third or fourth vaccines have been administered. Here, we present a female case who developed axillary lymph node swelling after her third vaccination. We have also reviewed the literature regarding this side-effect after a third or fourth COVID-19 vaccination. Case Report: A 64-year-old woman who came to our clinic regarding a mammography abnormality in her left breast. She had no palpable mass, but a left breast mass was shown by mammography, and ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging indicated a hamartoma. At 2 months after her second COVID-19 vaccination when she underwent these tests, she had no axillary lymph node swelling. We planned a follow-up after 6 months. At her next visit, by chance, she underwent ultrasonography 14 days after she received a third COVID-19 vaccination, and a swollen axillary lymph node was observed. Conclusion: Axillary lymph node swelling can occur after a third COVID-19 vaccination. Therefore, breast oncologists will have to consider this side-effect of COVID-19 vaccination when diagnosing breast tumors. Pneumonia caused by the novel coronavirus, called Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), was first reported in Wuhan, China in December 2019 (1). Two years later and the pandemic has become global. During this pandemic, COVID-19 vaccines, such as the BNT162b2 vaccine (Pfizer) (2) and mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna) (3), have been developed rapidly, and in many countries, including Japan, vaccination with these vaccines has been performed. BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 are mRNA vaccines and this is the first time this type of vaccine has been used in a clinical setting.When these vaccinations were started, clinical trials of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 (2, 3) were designed to administer two doses. However, this pandemic has continued for 2 years, and therefore booster vaccinations have been required to prevent COVID-19 infection because antibody levels to the virus decrease within several months. In Japan, the third vaccination started in December 2021 (4). Currently, a third vaccination is indicated for those who received a second vaccination more than 6 months previously, and further vaccination might be needed. Indeed, Japan is planning to administer a fourth COVID-19 vaccination (5).These vaccines have characteristic side-effects including fever, general fatigue, injection-site pain, and swelling (2). In addition, local lymph node swelling can also occur after these vaccinations (3). In cases of axillary lymph node swelling, breast oncologists should consider whether these swellings are metastases of breast cancer or a side-effect of the vaccine. Here, we present a case with axillary lymph node swel...

Background/Aim: Breast cancer treatment mainly involves interventional methods such as surgical resection and chemotherapy. How to best perform these treatments during the COVID-19 pandemic remains to be established. Patients and Methods: Patients with breast cancer who received SARS-CoV-2 PCR screening before cancer treatment from December 2020 to April 2021 were included. PCR screening was performed within 72 hours of the scheduled admission time and treatment. Results: A total of 19 tests in 15 patients were analysed. Fourteen cases displayed no symptoms, and five cases had some symptoms. COVID PCR tests were negative in all cases. Conclusion: COVID-19 screening can ensure that breast cancer patients do not miss scheduled treatments as a result of the pandemic. Diagnosis of patients with symptoms that are shared by COVID-19 infection, chemotherapy, and breast cancer recurrence must be performed carefully.