Counterfeit pesticides used in agriculture or public health services have become a worldwide problem. Adulteration of pesticides can occur in several stages of manufacturing the active ingredient (AI) when using poor raw materials and low-quality solvents to produce either the AI or the formulation by avoiding required purification procedures, leading to impurities in the form of stereoisomers (cis or trans). Also, counterfeit pesticide producers can use low-cost materials in manufacturing packaging materials, among other methods of adulteration. Impurities in counterfeit pesticides, such as ethylmethanesulfonate, isomalathion, or nonylphenol ethoxylates, could threaten human health, environmental components, and national economies. Elaborate tests are necessary to distinguish between original and counterfeit pesticides. Organized crime trades in counterfeit pesticides, driven by their great profits. Global revenues from counterfeit pesticide trade are estimated at more than €4.4 billion (US$5.4 billion) annually. On global and national levels, measures and rules must be followed to combat counterfeit and contraband pesticides. This Review describes the process of producing counterfeit pesticides, their health and economic effects, and Egypt's prototypical measures in reducing and stopping this trend.

Nowadays, large quantities of banned chemical pesticides are still in use illegally in various developing countries. The effect of these pesticides on humans, that is, children, adults, including pregnant women, either through chronic residential or occupational exposure, leads to various negative effects. This chapter focuses on the evidence of using the banned pesticides in developing countries and the occurrence of different diseases that affect the quality of life of the affected individuals either at the health, social, and/or labor level. The recorded diseases included obesity, diabetes, Alzheimer’s, dementia, Parkinson’s, asthma, chronic bronchitis, autism, erectile dysfunction, and psychological disorders as a result of chronic exposure to the banned pesticides. It was highlighted the identification of each disease, some epidemiological studies carried out in developing countries, and the mechanisms of action by which the pesticides are linked to each mentioned disease. In conclusion, it was discussed the major causes behind the incidence of such diseases and suggested suitable solutions that must be presented by the US Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Agriculture Organization among other bodies to the developing countries to avoid and overcome the occurrence of such diseases in the future.

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The toxicological effects of prepared neem oil nano-formulations compared with the bulk one on Swiss male albino mice were investigated. Characterization of the prepared nano-formulations using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) revealed that the size of the prepared nanoparticles ranged between 30-50 and 60-80 nm for nano-emulsion and loaded nano-emulsion particles, respectively. The acute oral LD50 values were 113.33, 134.83, and 140.90 mg/kg for loaded nano-emulsion, nano-emulsion, and bulk neem extract, respectively. The oral administration of the sub-lethal dose (LD10) caused significant alterations in the selected biomarkers. Hemoglobin percent and Red Blood corpuscles (RBCs) count decreased significantly after the seventh day and White Blood Cells (WBCs) count reduced after the third day of treatment by loaded nano-emulsion treatment. Aspartate aminotransferase and bilirubin increased significantly after the seventh day in nano-emulsion and loaded nano-emulsion treatment, respectively. Alanine aminotransferase significantly decreased after the seventh day of treatment by nano-emulsion. Compared to the control values, glutathione S-transferase decreased to -52.21 %, while reduced glutathione increased to +42.18 % after the seventh day in nano-emulsion treatment. Serum creatinine increased to +135.71 % after the seventh day in loaded nanoemulsion and total ATPase increased to +8.56 % after the third day in nano-emulsion treatment.anion and hydroxyl radical which may affect their toxic action