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This study tracked the leadership development of 236 male cadets from matriculation through graduation at a military college. Cognitive ability, physical fitness, prior influence experiences, and self-esteem measured in Year I were relevant to predicting those who assumed formal leadership positions in Year 4. Physical fitness and prior influence experiences measured when cadets entered the college predicted leader effectiveness rated in their fourth year. Stress tolerance and moral reasoning levels did not predict leader emergence or effectiveness, though the set of individual difference measures significantly predicted emergence and effectiveness. Physical fitness levels and moral reasoning increased over time for all cadets, though surprisingly, levels of self-esteem and stress tolerance did not increase over time. Overall the study demonstrated that leadership effectiveness and emergence could be predicted from early measures of individual differences.

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Little empirical information is available on the nature of managerial work. Such information is needed, not only for training and development programs but also for managerial selection, appraisal, and utilization. The purpose of this study was to compare high level managerial jobs in public and private sectors by examining job content, job characteristics, and required skills, knowledge, and abilities. Mintzberg's (1973Mintzberg's ( , 1975 roles were used for the comparisons. Data were gathered from 210 public-sector and 220 privatesector managers and executives. Results indicate that managers in the public sector perform the same kind of activities as managers in the private sector in terms of complexity of job content and roles and in terms of job characteristics. The study has action implications for the selection, development, and appraisal systems of both public-and private-sector executives.Most of the literature on what constitutes management and how to select and develop effective managers is related to the private-sector manager. Consequently, little empirical information is available concerning similarities or differences between management functions in the private and public sectors. Much of the management literature since Fayol (1916) introduced POSDCORB (planning, organizing, staffing, etc.) has consisted of speculation regarding what managers or their subordinates say they do, could do, or should do. Relatively little of this information is based on what managers or executives actually do, and little pertains to top-level executives. The majority is directed at middleor first-level supervisors, or it treats management as a function that is the same across all hierarchical levels and functional areas.

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