The coexistence of grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees characterizes savannas; therefore, to restore such ecosystems one should consider reintroducing all these growth forms. Currently, little is known about field establishment of most ''Cerrado'' (Brazilian savanna) species that could be used for restoration purposes. Most knowledge on restoration is focused on planting seedlings of tree species from forest physiognomies. Alternatively, direct seeding can be an appropriate method to reintroduce plants of different life forms to restore savannas. We evaluated the initial establishment success under field conditions of 75 ''Cerrado'' native species (50 trees, 13 shrubs, and 12 grasses) in direct seeding experiments in four sites in Central Brazil for 2.5 years. For that, we tagged and measured tree and larger shrub species and estimated ground cover by small shrub and grass species. Sixty-two species became established (42 trees, 11 shrubs and 9 grasses) under field conditions. Thirty-eight of the 48 tagged species had relatively high emergence rates ([10%) and 41 had high seedling survival ([60%) in the first year. Among grasses and small shrub species, Andropogon fastigiatus Sw., Aristida riparia Trin., Schizachyrium sanguineum (Retz.) Alston, Lepidaploa aurea (Mart. ex DC.) H.Rob., Stylosanthes capitata Vogel, S. macrocephala M.B.Ferreira & Sousa Costa, Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC. and Trachypogon spicatus (L.f.) Kuntze had the greatest initial establishment success (up to 30% soil cover). The data on harvesting period, processing mode and field establishment for these 75 species can be readily used in restoration efforts in the ''Cerrado''.

Defining the reference system for restoration projects in regions characterized by complex vegetation mosaics is challenging.Here we use the Cerrado region of Brazil as an example of the importance of clearly defining multiple natural and anthropogenically altered states in grassland-savanna-forest mosaics. We define three main, natural vegetation types-grassland, savanna, and scleromorphic (cerradão) forest-to (1) distinguish between original and degraded states and (2) set appropriate targets for and guide restoration. We contend that the differences in Cerrado vegetation composition originally were driven by soil conditions and secondarily by fire frequency and precipitation patterns that differ from the core to the edge of the Cerrado region. Grasslands are found on the shallowest, least fertile soils and/or in waterlogged soils; scleromorphic forests are generally located on deeper, more fertile soils; and savannas occupy an intermediate position. In recent decades, this biophysical template has been overlain by a range of human land-use intensities that strongly affect resilience, resulting in alternative anthropogenic states. For example, areas that were originally scleromorphic forest are likely to regenerate naturally following low-or medium-intensity land use due to extensive resprouting of woody plants, whereas grassland restoration requires reintroduction of grass and forb species that do not tolerate soil disturbance and exotic grass competition. Planting trees into historic grasslands results in inappropriate restoration targets and often restoration failure. Correctly identifying original vegetation types is critical to most effectively allocate scarce restoration funding. Implications for Practice• Land managers and scientists should collaborate to identify the range of natural and anthropogenic states in grassland-savanna-forest mosaics to choose appropriate targets for restoration. • Identifying natural and anthropogenic factors influencing these vegetation types and their degraded states can help guide selection of the most suitable and cost-effective restoration techniques. • The resprouting ability of woody species allows for high resilience under low-intensity disturbance regimes; however, herbaceous native species rarely recover naturally following extensive soil disturbance and exotic grass invasion. • There is an urgent need to improve evidence-based restoration techniques in the Cerrado grassland-savannaforest complex, especially how to control invasive grasses, reestablish soil conditions, and manage fire, since techniques applicable at a large scale are necessary to achieve restoration commitments and targets.The following information may be found in the online version of this article: Figure S1. Map of Brazilian biomes. The Cerrado region (light green) is in central Brazil and borders four different biomes. Figure S2. Photos of the three main Cerrado vegetation types: (A) grassland; (B) savanna, and (C) cerradão (scleromorphic forest). Photos: Bruno M. T. Walter.