From marginal access to school before 1960, African modern education systems expanded steadily during the 1960s and 1970s, prompted by high priority given to education. The 1980s experienced stagnation and decline due to a drastic decrease in education financing further to the balance of payment and budget deficits, and the ensuing structural adjustment programmes. Since 1990, there have been intensified efforts to reverse the trend through national and international efforts. The African education sector continues to face serious challenges of low and inequitable access to education, irrelevant curriculum and poor learning outcomes, inadequate political commitment and financing, weak education system capacity, and weak link with the world of work. Drawing on relevant documents and data, the paper discusses briefly those challenges and the education policy measures taken to address them. It also assesses to what extent the Bank response was relevant and effective in addressing the African education challenges. While progress has been made in bringing more children to schools, the results in terms of quantity and quality have been far from the targets, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper concludes with a call for a greater effort to keep the promise for education for all and for quality education. This may *
Résumé: La mortalité des enfants était en baisse en Zambie, de l’indépendance en 1964 jusqu’en 1975, grâce aux politiques sociales et sanitaires généreuses alimentées par le revenu du cuivre dont le prix était à la hausse. Cette situation a changé lorsque, en 1974, en même temps que la production par tête du cuivre baissait, le prix international connut un renversement de tendance et entraîna aussitôt un effondrement des indicateurs économiques. Le secteur sanitaire fut fortement affecté et on observa une remontée de la mortalité des enfants entre 1975 et 1992. Les dépenses publiques de santé, de même que les importations de produits pharmaceutiques baissèrent considérablement, et certains médecins dont le salaire réel baissait, quittèrent le pays. La situation économique et sociale était d’autant plus critique que le pays s’enfonçait dans des pratiques patrimoniales et de corruption, source de mécontentement populaire et d’une opposition politique qui gagna les élections présidentielles en octobre 1991. Le nouveau gouvernement se montra, du moins au début, plus favorable à l’adoption d’une politique d’ajustement structurel. Les flux de financements extérieurs faibliront par la suite, du fait des performances décevantes et de la résurgence de l’autoritarisme, la corruption et la réticence à la privatisation. En dépit de la récession économique et des effets pervers de l’ajustement structurel, la mortalité des enfants baisse à partir de 1992, surtout lorsqu’on enlève la mortalité due au sida. Comme le confirme notre analyse économétrique, cette baisse est corrélative au nouveau contexte politique, à la libéralisation de l’économie et à la mise en place de la réforme du système sanitaire.
Before 1965, under-five mortality was declining in Rwanda, from an estimated value of 346 per 1,000 in 1950 to 229 per 1,000 in 1965. Then it rose for about 12 years to 261 per 1,000 in 1977, to decline again, reaching a level of 132 per 1,000 in 1990. The 1991-2000 period witnessed a major peak of mortality in 1994 and another peak in 1998. This paper explores reasons for these significant changes in mortality. The 1965-77 period was marked by severe difficulties after independence in 1962, due to the sudden departure of expatriates, the relative international isolation, the lack of international aid, the flight of educated persons of Tutsi origin, and possibly the departure of herders and their cattle following ethnic conflicts between Hutu and Tutsi during the 1959-66 period. During the 1977-90 period, social indicators became more favourable, with the increasing benefits from earlier social investments, higher openness to international markets, more international aid and more internal political stability. The peaks in mortality of 1994 and 1998 are due to the genocide and its aftermaths. This study is an illustration of complex relationships between economic, socio-political contexts and their different health outcomes expressed in terms of under-five mortality. Au Rwanda, la mortalit� infanto-juv�nile �tait en baisse avant l'ind�pendance obtenue en 1962. Elle passe de 346 pour 1000 en 1950 � 229 pour 1000 en 1965. Puis, elle augmente pendant environ 12 ans pour atteindre 261 pour 1000 en 1977, puis baisse de nouveau jusqu'� 132 pour 1000 en 1990. La p�riode de 1991 � 2000 est complexe et a connu deux pics de mortalit� en 1994 et en 1998. Cet article explore les raisons de ces changements significatifs de la mortalit�. La p�riode de 1965 � 1977 est marqu�e par de grandes difficult�s apr�s l'ind�pendance, en raison du d�part soudain du personnel m�dical expatri�, de l'isolement international relatif, du manque d'aide internationale, de l'exil des personnes instruites d'ethnie tutsi et, peut-�tre, du d�part de certains �leveurs avec leur b�tail � la suite des conflits interethniques qui se sont succ�d�s de 1959 � 1966. De 1977 � 1990, les indicateurs sociaux deviennent plus favorables, profitant des investissements sociaux de la p�riode pr�c�dente, d'une plus grande ouverture aux march�s internationaux, de plus d'aide internationale et de stabilit� politique. Les sommets de mortalit� de 1994 et 1998 s'expliquent par la guerre civile, le g�nocide de 1994 et leurs cons�quences. Cette �tude est une illustration de rapports complexes entre les contextes �conomiques et sociopolitiques et les indicateurs de sant� publique, exprim�s ici en termes de mortalit� des enfants de moins de cinq ans.
Regionalism has been a long-standing objective of international development assistance at least since the 1960s. However it is only since the early 2000s that international organizations have significantly increased their assistance to operations designed to foster regional integration as a means to achieve tangible national and regional development goals. These operations address challenges that are common to a group of countries and whose resolution is essentially beyond national responsibilities and capabilities. Existing evidence suggests that financing arrangements, coordination of integration operations, and sustaining their results represent a challenge and requires strong political commitment as well as proactive and effective governance to overcome collective disincentives to cooperate. The country demand for a regional operation needs to be based on an extensive preparation that provides a sound analysis of the rationale, the political economy and the costs and benefits of the operation. This paper aims to illustrate challengescoordination failure, free-riding problem, cost-benefit estimation-standing in the way of integration projects and how they were dealt with in the case of Manantali energy project, considered as a successful integration project. Lessons for future projects are drawn from the case.
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