Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease (GSS) ischaracterized by the accumulation of proteinase K (PK)-resistant prion protein fragments (PrP sc ) of ϳ7 to 15 kd in the brain. Purified GSS amyloid is composed primarily of ϳ7-kd PrP peptides, whose N terminus corresponds to residues W 81 and G 88 to G 90 in patients with the A117V mutation and to residue W 81 in patients with the F198S mutation. The aim of this study was to characterize PrP in brain extracts, microsomal preparations, and purified fractions from A117V patients and to determine the N terminus of PrP sc species in both GSS A117V and F198S. In all GSS A117V patients, the ϳ7-kd PrP sc fragment isolated from nondigested and PK-digested samples had the major N terminus at residue G 88 and G 90 , respectively. Conversely, in all patients with GSS F198S, an ϳ8-kd Prion diseases are neurodegenerative disorders present in both humans and animals.

The axis inhibition (Axin) scaffold protein colocalizes β-catenin, casein kinase Iα, and glycogen synthetase kinase 3β by their binding to Axin's long intrinsically disordered region, thereby yielding structured domains with flexible linkers. This complex leads to the phosphorylation of β-catenin, marking it for destruction. Fusing proteins with flexible linkers vastly accelerates chemical interactions between them by their colocalization. Here we propose that the complex works by random movements of a “stochastic machine,” not by coordinated conformational changes. This noncovalent, modular assembly process allows the various molecular machine components to be used in multiple processes.

Recent advances in 3-dimensional (3-D) stereoscopic imaging have enabled 3-D display technologies in the operating room. We find 2 beneficial applications for the inclusion of 3-D imaging in clinical practice. The first is the real-time 3-D display in the surgical theater, which is useful for the neurosurgeon and observers. In surgery, a 3-D display can include a cutting-edge mixed-mode graphic overlay for image-guided surgery. The second application is to improve the training of residents and observers in neurosurgical techniques. This article documents the requirements of both applications for a 3-D system in the operating room and for clinical neurosurgical training, followed by a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the current and emerging 3-D display technologies. An important comparison between a new autostereoscopic display without glasses and current stereo display with glasses improves our understanding of the best applications for 3-D in neurosurgery. Today's multiview autostereoscopic display has 3 major benefits: It does not require glasses for viewing; it allows multiple views; and it improves the workflow for image-guided surgery registration and overlay tasks because of its depth-rendering format and tools. Two current limitations of the autostereoscopic display are that resolution is reduced and depth can be perceived as too shallow in some cases. Higher-resolution displays will be available soon, and the algorithms for depth inference from stereo can be improved. The stereoscopic and autostereoscopic systems from microscope cameras to displays were compared by the use of recorded and live content from surgery. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of application of autostereoscopy in neurosurgery.

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