Lower blood glucose values are common in the healthy neonate immediately after birth as compared to older infants, children, and adults. These transiently lower glucose values improve and reach normal ranges within hours after birth. Such transitional hypoglycemia is common in the healthy newborn. A minority of neonates experience a more prolonged and severe hypoglycemia, usually associated with specific risk factors and possibly a congenital hypoglycemia syndrome. Despite the lack of a specific blood glucose value that defines hypoglycemia, concern for substantial neurologic morbidity in the neonatal population has led to the generation of guidelines by both the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the Pediatric Endocrine Society (PES). Similarities between the 2 guidelines include recognition that the transitional form of neonatal hypoglycemia likely resolves within 48 hours after birth and that hypoglycemia that persists beyond that duration may be pathologic. One major difference between the 2 sets of guidelines is the goal blood glucose value in the neonate. This article reviews transitional and pathologic hypoglycemia in the neonate and presents a framework for understanding the nuances of the AAP and PES guidelines for neonatal hypoglycemia.

The neonatal period from birth to less than or equal to 28 days is one of increased risk of death. Congenital anomalies and prematurity are 2 of the most common risk factors for death at this early age. Many of these neonates will die in an intensive care unit, some with full resuscitative efforts being undertaken despite the understanding that these actions are highly unlikely to yield an outcome different from death. Palliative care allows curative therapies to be provided alongside supportive techniques such as enhanced family communication, attention to spirituality and the psychosocial health of the family, management of symptoms other than those specific to the underlying disease process, and enhancing comfort. The American Academy of Pediatrics has set forth recommendations related to pediatric palliative care for the various pediatric subspecialties; however, much of the focus is on disease processes and curing or mitigating various illnesses. Given the high preponderance of death in the neonatal period, neonatal-perinatal medicine training programs should be tasked with generating formal palliative care training. Such training should be geared to providing better care for neonatal patients with a life-limiting or life-altering illness, and better equipping future neonatologists with the tools needed to provide truly comprehensive care for their sickest patients at risk for death and disability. This article serves to review the concept of palliative care in neonates, discuss the paucity of formal education in palliative care, explore the general trend in palliative care education, review various ways in which palliative care education can be formalized, and define metrics of a successful educational program.

Context: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) remains one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality for premature infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Many theories concerning its pathophysiology and inciting factors have been suggested but progression in preventing the onset of NEC has been minimal. While this article highlights the pathophysiology, management, and outcomes of NEC, it mainly serves as a narrative review to discuss the emerging methods of treatment and prevention.Evidence Acquisition: A literature search was done using Medline/Pub Med, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews via Ovid, and CINAHL Complete with focus on articles published between 2000 and 2016. Searched terms included the following: necrotizing enterocolitis, pathogenesis, prevention, management, breast milk, formula, probiotics, prebiotics, and treatment. Results:Intestinal barrier dysfunction, hypoxic ischemic injury, receipt of packed red blood cells, immature intestinal immunity and alterations of the gut microbiome of the premature infant were reviewed factors that have been studied related to the pathophysiology of NEC. The presentation, staging and management remain relatively unchanged in the last few decades, though there have been a few studies evaluating different surgical options, various antibacterial regimen, and recently use of moderate hypothermia and amniotic fluid stem cells to treat NEC. Use of breast milk, use of pre-, pro-and postbiotics show promise in the prevention of NEC.Conclusions: NEC is a likely multifactorial illness of the gastrointestinal tract affecting mostly premature infants. Recent studies have focused on preventative strategies, with promise in pre-, pro-and postbiotics; however continued research is imperative.

Despite the recognition that enteral feeding and some clinical conditions encountered during the management of prematurity may affect the development of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in premature neonates, there is still significant variation in practice. Clinicians should be aware of the current evidence regarding feeding and the development of NEC in premature neonates, specifically relating to the use of breast milk, feeding when a patent ductus arteriosus is present and during its treatment, as well as the potential association of NEC with anemia and red blood cell transfusions. AbstractNecrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) remains one of the leading complications of prematurity with an incidence of 5% to 13% and a mortality of up to 30%. Its occurrence is inversely related to gestational age, with the most premature neonates being at highest risk. Despite numerous studies assessing risk factors, the most commonly observed associations remain prematurity and enteral feeding. Furthermore, studies have pointed to receipt of breast milk as a protective factor in decreasing the risk of NEC and formula feeding as potentially increasing the risk. Other potential risk factors and associations in the premature infant include lack of antenatal steroids, receipt of prolonged courses of postnatal antibiotics, presence of anemia, receipt of packed red blood cell transfusions, and presence of a patent ductus arteriosus. Despite the recognition that NEC remains a serious complication of prematurity, there is still no specific prescription for its prevention. Given that enteral feeding is one of the most commonly observed risk factors for the development of NEC, wide variation exists in the enteral feeding recommendations and practices for premature infants. Feeding practices that may contribute to NEC, which remain variable in practice, include feeding strategies used in the presence of a hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus and feeding during packed red blood cell transfusions. Use of breast milk (mother's own milk or donor milk) is recognized as one of the mainstays of NEC prevention. This article explores multiple influences of feeding on the development of NEC.