The conceptualization and coding of characters is a difficult issue in phylogenetic systematics, no matter which inference method is used when reconstructing phylogenetic trees or if the characters are just mapped onto a specific tree. Complex characters are groups of features that can be divided into simpler hierarchical characters (reductive coding), although the implied hierarchical relational information may change depending on the type of coding (composite vs. reductive). Up to now, there is no common agreement to either code characters as complex or simple. Phylogeneticists have discussed which coding method is best but have not incorporated the heuristic process of reciprocal illumination to evaluate the coding. Composite coding allows to test whether 1) several characters were linked resulting in a structure described as a complex character or trait or 2) independently evolving characters resulted in the configuration incorrectly interpreted as a complex character. We propose that complex characters or character states should be decomposed iteratively into simpler characters when the original homology hypothesis is not corroborated by a phylogenetic analysis, and the character or character state is retrieved as homoplastic. We tested this approach using the case of fruit types within subfamily Cinchonoideae (Rubiaceae). The iterative reductive coding of characters associated with drupes allowed us to unthread fruit evolution within Cinchonoideae. Our results show that drupes and berries are not homologous. As a consequence, a more precise ontology for the Cinchonoideae drupes is required.

Background and aims – Ongoing studies on Mexican Rubiaceae revealed an undescribed species of Coutaportla endemic to the Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests in the state of Sinaloa, near the border with Durango, Mexico. The species is here described and illustrated, and its morphological characters are compared with those of the other species in the genus. Material and methods – This study is based on field observations, examination of herbarium specimens including digital images, and morphological studies based on samples from dried and spirit specimens. Key results – The morphological comparison of taxonomically important characters among the species of Coutaportla reveals conditions that were previously not reported for the genus. The placentation and ovule number of C. lorenceana, which belongs in the Portlandia complex, is comparable to that in the Chiococceae tribe. This tribe was proposed to include the latter complex based on molecular data, but the classification was controversial according to the morphology. Coutaportla lorenceana hence provides a morphological link between the Portlandia complex and the taxa traditionally placed in Chiococceae. The new species is assessed as Critically Endangered following the IUCN Red List criteria.

ResumenSe estudió la anatomía de corteza y madera de 42 especies de 8 tribus de Rubiaceae con la finalidad de evaluar si los caracteres anatómicos permiten la separación de las especies de los géneros presentes en México y si hay caracteres relacionados con el ambiente donde viven o su hábito. El fenograma mostró 2 grupos que corresponden a la madera tipo I y II sensu Koek-Noorman. No todas las especies de Bouvardia ni de Psychotria se agrupan en su respectivo género y Notopleura anomothyrsa es diferente del resto por tener fibrotraqueidas septadas y punteaduras intervasculares escalariformes. El grupo de Arachnothryx, Chione, Exostema, Hintonia y Randia con madera tipo I presenta ritidoma, bandas de esclereidas y 3 tipos de cristales en el floema; son árboles o arbustos de selva baja caducifolia y bosque mesófilo. El grupo con madera tipo II tiene una peridermis, endodermis, grupos de fibras/esclereidas y rafidios en el floema; son arbustos de selva alta perennifolia, baja caducifolia, bosque mesófilo y de pino-encino. Los anillos de crecimiento en estas especies sugieren estar asociados con aspectos fenológicos y las condiciones del hábitat, pero no así el diámetro y densidad de los vasos que parecen tener una fuerte señal filogenética.

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