Summary The outcome of chronic viral infections, which affect millions of people worldwide, are greatly dependent on CD4+ T cells. Here we showed that T cell specific ablation of the common interleukin-6 (IL-6) family receptor, gp130, profoundly compromised virus-specific CD4+ T cell survival, T follicular helper responses and IL-21 production at late stages of a chronic murine viral infection. These effects were cell-intrinsic for CD4+ T cells and were accompanied by a reduction of CD8+ T cells, antibodies and a severe failure in viral control. We identified IL-27 as a gp130 cytokine that promoted antiviral CD4+ T cell survival in vivo and that rapidly induced IL-21 ex vivo. Furthermore, IL27R was critical for control of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) in vivo. These results reveal that gp130 cytokines (particularly IL-27) are key regulators of CD4+ T cell responses during an established chronic viral infection, empowering both humoral and cytotoxic immunity.

Chronic viral infections represent a major challenge to the host immune response, and a unique network of immunological elements, including cytokines, are required for their containment. By using a model persistent infection with the natural murine pathogen lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus clone 13 (LCMV Cl13) we investigated the role of one such cytokine, interleukin-27 (IL-27), in the control of chronic infection. We found that IL-27 receptor (IL-27R) signaling promoted control of LCMV Cl13 as early as days 1 and 5 after infection and that il27p28 transcripts were rapidly elevated in multiple subsets of dendritic cells (DCs) and myeloid cells. In particular, plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), the most potent type 1 interferon (IFN-I)-producing cells, significantly increased il27p28 in a Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7)-dependent fashion. Notably, mice deficient in an IL-27-specific receptor, WSX-1, exhibited a pleiotropy of innate and adaptive immune alterations after chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection, including compromised NK cell cytotoxicity and antibody responses. While, the majority of these immune alterations appeared to be cell extrinsic, cell-intrinsic IL-27R was necessary to maintain early pDC numbers, which, alongside lower IFN-I transcription in CD11b+ DCs and myeloid cells, may explain the compromised IFN-I elevation that we observed early after LCMV Cl13 infection in IL-27R-deficient mice. Together, these data highlight the critical role of IL-27 in enabling optimal antiviral immunity early and late after infection with a systemic persistent virus and suggest that a previously unrecognized positive-feedback loop mediated by IL-27 in pDCs might be involved in this process.IMPORTANCE Persistently replicating pathogens, such as human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus, represent major health problems worldwide. These infections impose a long-term challenge on the host immune system, which must be heavily and continuously regulated to keep pathogen replication in check without causing fatal immunopathology. Using a persistently replicating rodent pathogen, LCMV, in its natural host, we identified the cellular sources and effects of one important regulatory pathway, interleukin-27 receptor WSX-1 signaling, that is required for both very early and late restriction of chronic (but not acute) infection. We found that WSX-1 was necessary to promote innate immunity and the development of aberrant adaptive immune responses. This not only highlights the role of IL-27 receptor signaling in regulating distinct host responses that are known to be necessary to control chronic infections, but also positions IL-27 as a potential therapeutic target for their modulation.

The interleukin-6 (IL-6) cytokine family utilizes the common signal transduction molecule gp130, which can mediate a diverse range of outcomes. To clarify the role of gp130 signaling in vivo during acute viral infection we infected Cd4-cre Il6stfl/fl mice, in which gp130 is conditionally ablated in T cells, with acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). We found that by day 12, but not at day 8, post infection the number of virus specific CD4+ T cells was reduced in the absence of gp130, and this was sustained for up to 2 months post infection. Additionally gp130 deficient TFH had lower expression of Maf, IL-21 and ICOS and this was accompanied by a reduction in the proportion of germinal center B cells and plasmablasts. Remarkably, two months post-infection the proportion of IgG2a/c+ memory B cells and the systemic levels of LCMV-specific IgG2 Abs were dramatically decreased, while there was a corresponding increase in IgG1+ memory B cells and virus-specific IgG1 Abs. In the same animals Gp130 deficient virus specific CD8+ T cells showed a reduced proportion of memory cells, which expressed lower levels of Tcf7, and displayed diminished recall responses on secondary infection. Mixed bone marrow chimeras revealed that the aforementioned gp130 effects on CD4+ T cells were cell-intrinsic. Overall our data show that gp130 signaling in T cells influences the quantity and quality of long lasting CD4+ T cell responses as well as CD8+ T cell and antibody mediated immunity after acute viral infection.

The pleiotropic cytokine IL-6 plays an integral role not only in innate inflammatory responses but also in the activation and differentiation of lymphocyte subsets. In this study, by using a conditional knockout (cKO) model with selective IL-6 receptor deletion in T cells (IL-6R-cKO), we demonstrated that T cell-specific IL-6R signaling is essential for viral control during persistent lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus clone 13 infection. Strikingly, we observed that in contrast to previous studies with ubiquitous IL-6 deletion or blockade, specific IL-6R deletion in T cells did not affect T follicular helper (Tfh) cell accumulation unless IL-6R-deficient T cells were competing with wild-type cells in mixed bone marrow chimeras. In contrast, Tfh cells from IL-6R-cKO-infected mice exhibited reduced ICOS expression in both chimeric and nonchimeric settings, and this sole identifiable Tfh defect was associated with reduced germinal centers, compromised Ig switch and low avidity of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-specific Abs despite intact IL-6R expression in B cells. We posit that IL-6R cis-signaling is absolutely required for appropriate ICOS expression in Tfh cells and provides a competitive advantage for Tfh accumulation, enabling generation of optimal B cell and Ab responses, and ultimately viral control during in vivo chronic infection.

Infection with chronic viral infections such as human immunodeficiency virus-1 and hepatitis C virus significantly increases the risk of developing cancer. CD4 T cells number and function are critical in determining the outcome of chronic viral infections in both mice and humans, but little is known about the signals that promote their survival or helper functions in this highly immunosuppressive environment. Here we showed that exclusive ablation of the common interleukin-6 family co-receptor, gp130 in T cells profoundly compromised the numbers of virus-specific CD4 T cells, their differentiation into T follicular helper cells and IL-21 production at late (but not early) stages of a chronic murine viral infection. This was accompanied by a marked reduction in both virus-specific CD8 T cells and antibodies and a severe failure to control the virus. Notably, cell-intrinsic signaling by the IL-6 family cytokine IL-27 was necessary for CD4 T cell survival while IL-6 was required for optimal T follicular helper cell differentiation. Contrastingly IL-6 and IL-27 were both capable of inducing IL-21 production by virus specific CD4 T cells, but neither was essential in vivo. Our data situates direct gp130 signaling in CD4 T cells at the center of antibody and CD8 T cell mediated immune responses during an established chronic viral infection, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target against such infections.