WITHIN HALF A CENTURY OF COLUMBIAN CONTACT, the most powerful state in Europe had taken over the two most powerful polities in the Americas: the Aztec and Inca empires. From that point until at least 1810, Spanish America was the largest and most populated European imperial domain in the New World, stretching eventually from California to Buenos Aires. Both the first and the last slave voyages to cross the Atlantic disembarked not very far from each other, in the Spanish colonies of Hispaniola (1505) and Cuba (1867). 1 This continent-sized group of colonies developed the first and, until the late eighteenth century, the largest free black population in the Americas. 2 Spanish America was therefore the part of the Americas with the most enduring links to Africa. Yet while the French, the British, and even the Portuguese empires have reasonably precise data on the origins, composition, and de-1 The first African slaves probably arrived in 1501 from Seville, Spain, but not on a slave voyage in the usual sense. António de Almeida Mendes, "The Foundations of the System: A Reassessment of the Slave Trade to the Spanish Americas in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in David Eltis and David Richardson, eds., Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database (New Haven, Conn., 2008), 63-94. 2 Spain's American possessions, the size and complexity of which should not be underestimated, were the linchpin of an empire that was genuinely global in scope during the eras of Hapsburg and Bourbon rule. In Europe, it stretched from the Spanish Netherlands to Sicily, and from Oran in North Africa to the Canary Islands. It included the Philippines in Asia, and the Mariana Islands and Guam in Oceania. During the Iberian Union, which lasted from 1580 to 1640, the Spanish crown also ruled over Portugal and the entire Portuguese empire, including Brazil and Angola, and territories in North Africa, India, and the Moluccas, among many other sites. Until the Constitution of 1812, Spanish territories in the Americas were considered kingdoms or provinces under the rule of the Spanish crown (much like the kingdoms of Aragon and Naples), and were typically grouped into larger administrative units known as audiencias. The audiencias, in turn, nominally fell under the jurisdiction of viceroyalties, though some retained a considerable degree of autonomy. The main center of Spanish power in North America was the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which encompassed all of modern Mexico plus the provinces of Upper California, New Mexico, and Texas. Stretching across the circum-Caribbean, the Audiencia of Santo Domingo included the islands of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba, as well as Florida. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it also included most of present-day Venezuela and its neighboring islands, and it would add the Floridas (again) and Louisiana during the eighteenth century. The neighboring Audiencia of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, including territories that correspond to t...

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The slave trade within the Americas, after the initial disembarkation of African captives in the New World, has received scant attention from historians, especially before the abolition of the transatlantic traffic. This article examines such intra-American trafficking as an introduction to the digital project Final Passages: The Intra-American Slave Trade Database, which aims to document evidence of slave voyages throughout the New World. This article does not provide statistics on this internal slave trade, as ongoing research will deliver new data. Instead, we consolidate qualitative knowledge about these intercolonial slave routes. As the article focuses on the era prior to British and U.S. abolition of the transatlantic trade (1807-1808), we leave out the nineteenth-century domestic slave trades in the United States and Brazil to focus on survivors of the Atlantic crossing who endured subsequent forced movement within the Americas.

eds.), Madrid, Silex Universidad, 2018, 321pp. Este bienvenido libro sobre Cádiz, el último gran puerto esclavista europeo del siglo xix, nace de una investigación colectiva denominada «La participación española en el tráfico de esclavos y los legados de la esclavitud en España, 1765-1886.» Este volumen presenta diez intervenciones sobre la historia comercial, política, económica, diplomática, social y de desarrollo de los saberes vinculados a la trata gaditana. Salvo por el capítulo de Arturo Morgado García y el de José Piqueras y Emma Vidal, el resto de las intervenciones está centrada en el siglo xix y en particular en las dinámicas impuestas por la clandestinidad de este tráfico luego de 1817. No está demás mencionar que se podría hacer un volumen colectivo similar sobre la trata inicial a través de Cádiz durante los siglos xvi y xvii, teniendo en cuenta la historia de este puerto y su relación con Portugal, las islas Atlánticas africanas (Canarias y Cabo Verde, entre otras), así como con América. Este tema, por supuesto, está más allá de la investigación de los editores y autores de este libro colectivo, por lo que aquí no se critica su falta, sino que se alienta a su futura inclusión en otros volúmenes.La introducción señala que Cádiz fue el más importante puerto esclavista europeo luego de 1817, cuando ya los grandes puertos esclavistas ingleses y franceses habían dejado casi completamente de participar en esta actividad. Cádiz surgió como uno de los pocos puertos del Viejo Mundo en donde todavía se organizaban viajes esclavistas hacia las Américas en tiempos de la clandestinidad impuesta por el tratado anglo-español contra la trata. Esta es una historia atlántica en su mejor perfil en tanto interroga, desde varias perspectivas, las relaciones de Cádiz con el resto de la España peninsular, con Cuba y Santo Domingo, y con los puertos africanos vinculados a estas redes comerciales.El capítulo de Morgado García ofrece un excelente análisis basado en protocolos y libros de bautismo, sobre los esclavos que vivían en Cádiz en el siglo posterior a 1650. Ambas fuentes muestran que sólo la mitad de estos esclavos tenían su origen en el África subsahariana, y que había minorías significativas de personas esclavizadas registradas como «berberiscos,» «blancos,» «moros,» «membrillos» y «turcos». Por lo tanto, no es

The non linear heat transfert equation for an electrical cylindrical conductor is solved both numerically and analytically using the optimal linearization method. We have considered the general case where the thermal conductivity, the specific heat and the electrical resistivity are linear functions of temperature. A two parameters linearization method is presented