The Gram-negative bacterial outer membrane fortifies the cell against environmental toxins including antibiotics. Unique glycolipids called lipopolysaccharide/lipooligosaccharide (LPS/LOS) are enriched in the cell-surface monolayer of the outer membrane and promote antimicrobial resistance. Colistin, which targets the lipid A domain of LPS/LOS to lyse the cell, is the last-line treatment for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. Lipid A is essential for the survival of most Gram-negative bacteria, but colistin-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii lacking lipid A were isolated after colistin exposure. Previously, strain ATCC 19606 was the only A. baumannii strain demonstrated to subsist without lipid A. Here, we show that other A. baumannii strains can also survive without lipid A, but some cannot, affording a unique model to study endotoxin essentiality. We assessed the capacity of 15 clinical A. baumannii isolates including 9 recent clinical isolates to develop colistin resistance through inactivation of the lipid A biosynthetic pathway, the products of which assemble the LOS precursor. Our investigation determined that expression of the well-conserved penicillin-binding protein (PBP) 1A, prevented LOS-deficient colony isolation. The glycosyltransferase activity of PBP1A, which aids in the polymerization of the peptidoglycan cell wall, was lethal to LOS-deficient A. baumannii. Global transcriptomic analysis of a PBP1A-deficient mutant and four LOS-deficient A. baumannii strains showed a concomitant increase in transcription of lipoproteins and their transporters. Examination of the LOS-deficient A. baumannii cell surface demonstrated that specific lipoproteins were overexpressed and decorated the cell surface, potentially compensating for LOS removal. This work expands our knowledge of lipid A essentiality and elucidates a drug resistance mechanism.Acinetobacter | peptidoglycan | colistin | lipoprotein | lipopolysaccharide

SUMMARY The Hippo pathway regulates growth through the transcriptional co-activator Yorkie, but how Yorkie promotes transcription remains poorly understood. We address this by characterizing Yorkie’s association with chromatin, and by identifying nuclear partners that effect transcriptional activation. Co-immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry identify GAGA Factor (GAF), Brahma complex, and Mediator complex as Yorkie-associated nuclear protein complexes. All three are required for Yorkie’s transcriptional activation of downstream genes, and GAF and the Brahma complex subunit Moira interact directly with Yorkie. Genome-wide chromatin binding experiments identify thousands of Yorkie sites, most of which are associated with elevated transcription, based on genome-wide analysis of mRNA and histone H3K4Me3 modification. Chromatin binding also supports extensive functional overlap between Yorkie and GAF. Our studies suggest a widespread role for Yorkie as a regulator of transcription, and identify recruitment of the chromatin modifying GAF protein and BRM complex as a molecular mechanism for transcriptional activation by Yorkie.

Determining the chemical composition of biological materials is paramount to the study of natural phenomena. Here, we describe the composition of model gram-negative outer membranes, focusing on the predominant assembly, an asymmetrical bilayer of lipid molecules. We also give an overview of lipid biosynthetic pathways and molecular mechanisms that organize this material into the outer membrane bilayer. An emphasis is placed on the potential of these pathways as targets for antibiotic development. We discuss deviations in composition, through bacterial cell surface remodeling, and alternative modalities to the asymmetric lipid bilayer. Outer membrane lipid alterations of current microbiological interest, such as lipid structures found in commensal bacteria, are emphasized. Additionally, outer membrane components could potentially be engineered to develop vaccine platforms. Observations related to composition and assembly of gram-negative outer membranes will continue to generate novel discoveries, broaden biotechnologies, and reveal profound mysteries to compel future research.

In Salmonella enterica, PmrD is a connector protein that links the two-component systems PhoP-PhoQ and PmrA-PmrB. While Escherichia coli encodes a PmrD homolog, it is thought to be incapable of connecting PhoPQ and PmrAB in this organism due to functional divergence from the S. enterica protein. However, our laboratory previously observed that low concentrations of Mg 2؉ , a PhoPQ-activating signal, leads to the induction of PmrAB-dependent lipid A modifications in wild-type E. coli ( These modifications include phosphoethanolamine (pEtN) and 4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose (L-Ara4N), which promote bacterial resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs) when affixed to lipid A. Here, we demonstrate that pmrD is required for modification of the lipid A domain of E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) under low-Mg 2؉ growth conditions. Further, RNA sequencing shows that E. coli pmrD influences the expression of pmrA and its downstream targets, including genes coding for the modification enzymes that transfer pEtN and L-Ara4N to the lipid A molecule. In line with these findings, a pmrD mutant is dramatically impaired in survival compared with the wild-type strain when exposed to the CAMP polymyxin B. Notably, we also reveal the presence of an unknown factor or system capable of activating pmrD to promote lipid A modification in the absence of the PhoPQ system. These results illuminate a more complex network of protein interactions surrounding activation of PhoPQ and PmrAB in E. coli than previously understood. Bacteria often encounter adverse conditions that threaten survival in an unpredictable environment. The first line of defense for most Gram-negative bacteria is the outer membrane, which contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the outer leaflet that interfaces with the surroundings (1). LPS is a multicomponent macromolecule anchored to the bacterial membrane via its lipid A domain, a potent activator of the host innate immune response (2, 3). In the presence of environmental stressors, numerous Gram negatives have evolved machinery to modify the lipid A moiety with chemical groups that promote bacterial survival by creating a fortified, more resistant outer membrane (4).Lipid A modifications often are regulated by complex twocomponent system (TCS) protein networks that coordinate detection of various signals with targeted transcriptional regulation. A typical TCS consists of a sensor histidine kinase that detects specific environmental signals and a cognate response regulator, which carries out changes in expression of a subset of genes known as its regulon. Upon recognition of a given signal, the sensor first autophosphorylates and then phosphorylates the response regulator, causing it to activate or repress gene expression within the regulon. When the signal is no longer present or detectable, the sensor deactivates the response regulator by dephosphorylation, thereby terminating transcriptional control of the affected genes (2, 5, 6). The research here involves two such systems, PhoP-PhoQ (PhoPQ) and PmrA-PmrB ...

The bacterial cell surface is the first structure the host immune system targets to prevent infection. Cationic antimicrobial peptides of the innate immune system bind to the membrane of Gram-negative pathogens via conserved, surface-exposed lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules. We recently reported that modern strains of the global intestinal pathogen Vibrio cholerae modify the anionic lipid A domain of LPS with a novel moiety, amino acids. Remarkably, glycine or diglycine addition to lipid A alters the surface charge of the bacteria to help evade the cationic antimicrobial peptide polymyxin. However, the regulatory mechanisms of lipid A modification in V. cholerae are unknown. Here, we identify a novel two-component system that regulates lipid A glycine modification by responding to important biological cues associated with pathogenesis, including bile, mildly acidic pH, and cationic antimicrobial peptides. The histidine kinase Vc1319 (VprB) and the response regulator Vc1320 (VprA) respond to these signals and are required for the expression of the almEFG operon that encodes the genes essential for glycine modification of lipid A. Importantly, both the newly identified two-component system and the lipid A modification machinery are required for colonization of the mammalian host. This study demonstrates how V. cholerae uses a previously unknown regulatory network, independent of well-studied V. cholerae virulence factors and regulators, to respond to the host environment and cause infection.