The Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) and Sport Education (SE) pedagogical models share several objectives and pedagogical processes. Despite this seemingly uncanny relationship, few studies have examined the efficacy of a hybrid TGfU/SE pedagogical model, particularly how a teacher’s utilization of such a model impacts on student motivation. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect a hybrid TGfU/SE unit, in comparison to direct instruction, on students’ perceptions of various aspects of their motivation to engage in physical education (autonomous motivation, basic psychological needs, enjoyment and intention to be physically active). A crossover design was utilized, using the technique of counterbalancing. One group experienced a hybrid SE/TGfU unit first, followed by a unit of direct instruction. A second group experienced the units in the opposite order. Participants were 55 students. The intervention was conducted over a total of 16 lessons. The hybrid unit was designed according to the characteristics of SE by using seasons, roles, persistent teams, etc. Learning tasks set by the teacher during individual lessons, however, were designed according to the pedagogical principles of TGfU. Student motivation data was generated using validated questionnaires. Results showed that regardless of the order of intervention, the two groups showed significant improvements in autonomy, competence and enjoyment when they were taught using the hybrid model. Instead, in the variables autonomous motivation, relatedness and intention to be physically active there were no significant improvements in one group. These results demonstrate that it is possible to design varied learning situations in which affiliation, leadership and trust are fostered, while tasks are adapted to the characteristics of the students. All this can cause greater autonomous motivation, and consequently, perceived competence in the student, a positive image of the sport to practice, and therefore greater enjoyment and to be physically active.

To optimize players' tactical abilities, coaches need to design training sessions with representative learning tasks, such as, small-sided games. Moreover, it is necessary to adapt the complexity of the tasks to the skill level of the athletes to maximally improve their perceptual, visual and attentive abilities. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of two teaching programs, each utilizing modified games with varied levels of opposition, on decision-making and action execution in young players with different levels of sports expertise. 19 football players (U12), separated into two ability groups (Average versus Low skill-level), participated in a series of training sessions that were spread over 4 phases: Pre-intervention 1, Intervention 1 (teaching program based on modified games with numerical superiority in attack), Pre-intervention 2 and Intervention 2 (teaching program based on modified games with numerical equality). Each intervention phase lasted 14 sessions. Decision-making and the execution of pass action during league matches over the same period were evaluated using the Game Performance Evaluation Tool (GPET). The Average skill-level group showed significant differences after the first intervention in decision-making and execution of the pass action (decision-making, p = .015; execution, p = .031), but not after the second intervention (decision-making, p = 1.000; execution, p = 1.000). For the Low skill-level group, significant differences were only observed in the execution of passing between the first and last phases (p = .014). These findings seem to indicate that for groups with an average level of expertise, training with numerical superiority in attack provides players with more time to make better decisions and to better execute actions. However, for lower-level groups programs may take longer to facilitate improvement. Nevertheless, numerical equality did not result in improvement for either group.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of a hybrid teaching games for understanding (TGfU) and sport education (SE) physical education unit on autonomy support, perceived motivational climate, enjoyment and perceived competence, in comparison to a unit delivered via a traditional direct instruction model. A crossover design was utilized. Participants were 55 students divided into two groups. One group experienced a hybrid TGfU/SE unit first, followed by a unit of direct instruction. A second group experienced the units in the opposite order. The hybrid unit was designed according to the characteristics of SE (e.g. formal competition, seasons, team identity, roles, etc.) and learning tasks were designed to integrate the pedagogical principles of TGfU. Dependent variables were measured using validated questionnaires. Results showed that regardless of the order of intervention, students in the two groups reported significantly higher mean scores in interest in athletes’ input, praise for autonomous behavior, perceived competence, and enjoyment when they were taught using the hybrid TGfU/SE unit. The results demonstrate some initial evidence that a teacher’s employment of a hybrid TGfU/SE unit can encourage students to assume responsibilities and make independent decisions, which leads to them reporting greater enjoyment and perceived competence when compared to physical education lessons delivered via a traditional direct instruction model.

This study analysed effects of a training intervention program using principles of Non-Linear Pedagogy (NLP) on the decision making (DM) and performance behaviours (P) of youth footballers. For this purpose, 19 footballers (U12 yrs) participated in 14 training sessions, spread over three phases: Pre-intervention, Intervention, Retention. The intervention was based on use of Small-Sided and Conditioned Games in practice. We assessed participant progress during the intervention phase at two different points: intermediate and final. The GPET instrument was used to analyze the DM and P during completion of 3208 passes in the intervention. Results showed significant improvements in the DM and P after the intermediate and final points of the acquisition phase. Moreover, significantly higher values were also obtained in both variables in the retention, compared to the pre-intervention phase. Results indicated that the NLP intervention program was effective in improving both aspects of team games performance in youth players, with effects consolidated over time.

As an alternative to the direct instructional model, Metzler proposed a range of pedagogical models that include second generation models such as teaching games for understanding (TGfU) and sport education (SE). These pedagogical models have key design features that can promote high levels of autonomous motivation for both boys and girls. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to investigate the motivational outcomes of elementary boys and girls as they participated in an invasion game unit through two pedagogical models: a hybrid TGfU/SE unit or a direct instruction unit. Participants were 292 elementary school students (mean age = 10.41, standard deviation age = 0.49), who were taught through a hybrid TGfU/SE unit or a more traditional teacher-centred format within a pre-intervention/post-intervention quasi-experimental design. The hybrid unit was designed according to the characteristics of SE, while learning tasks were designed to integrate the pedagogical principles of TGfU. A 2 (pedagogical model) × 2 (test-time) × 2 (gender) multivariate analysis of variance was performed to detect between-groups and within-group differences. Significant differences in student motivation were observed for both boys and girls who participated in the hybrid TGfU/SE unit in both analyses across all motivational outcomes. Despite the existence of social stereotypes in terms of physical activity, teachers’ use of hybrid TGfU/SE units promotes an autonomy-supportive, inclusive, and equitable learning environment where all students, regardless of their gender and/or content focus of the unit and have opportunities to increase their engagement, enjoyment, and social interactions within physical education lessons.