The tyrosine kinase inhibitor nintedanib (BIBF 1120) is in clinical development for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. To explore its mode of action, nintedanib was tested in human lung fibroblasts and mouse models of lung fibrosis. Human lung fibroblasts expressing platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor-a and -b were stimulated with platelet-derived growth factor BB (homodimer) (PDGF-BB). Receptor activation was assessed by autophosphorylation and cell proliferation by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation. Transforming growth factor b (TGFb)-induced fibroblast to myofibroblast transformation was determined by a-smooth muscle actin (aSMA) mRNA analysis. Lung fibrosis was induced in mice by intratracheal bleomycin or silica particle administration. Nintedanib was administered every day by gavage at 30, 60, or 100 mg/kg. Preventive nintedanib treatment regimen started on the day that bleomycin was administered. Therapeutic treatment regimen started at various times after the induction of lung fibrosis. Bleomycin caused increased macrophages and lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and elevated interleukin-1b (IL-1b), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), and collagen in lung tissue. Histology revealed chronic inflammation and fibrosis. Silica-induced lung pathology additionally showed elevated BAL neutrophils, keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC) levels, and granuloma formation. Nintedanib inhibited PDGF receptor activation, fibroblast proliferation, and fibroblast to myofibroblast transformation. Nintedanib significantly reduced BAL lymphocytes and neutrophils but not macrophages. Furthermore, interleukin-1b, KC, TIMP-1, and lung collagen were significantly reduced. Histologic analysis showed significantly diminished lung inflammation, granuloma formation, and fibrosis. The therapeutic effect was dependent on treatment start and duration. Nintedanib inhibited receptor tyrosine kinase activation and the proliferation and transformation of human lung fibroblasts and showed antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory activity in two animal models of pulmonary fibrosis. These results suggest that nintedanib may impact the progressive course of fibrotic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Background Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal respiratory disease characterized by aberrant fibroblast activation and progressive fibrotic remodelling of the lungs. Though the exact pathophysiological mechanisms of IPF remain unknown, TGF-β1 is thought to act as a main driver of the disease by mediating fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transformation (FMT). Recent reports have indicated that a metabolic shift towards aerobic glycolysis takes place during FMT and that metabolic shifts can directly influence aberrant cell function. This has led to the hypothesis that inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase 5 (LDH5), an enzyme responsible for converting pyruvate into lactate, could constitute a therapeutic concept for IPF. Methods In this study, we investigated the potential link between aerobic glycolysis and FMT using a potent LDH5 inhibitor (Compound 408, Genentech). Seahorse analysis was performed to determine the effect of Compound 408 on TGF-β1-driven glycolysis in WI-38 fibroblasts. TGF-β1-mediated FMT was measured by quantifying α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and fibronectin in primary human lung fibroblasts following treatment with Compound 408. Lactate and pyruvate levels in the cell culture supernatant were assessed by LC-MS/MS. In addition to pharmacological LDH5 inhibition, the effect of siRNA-mediated knockdown of LDHA and LDHB on FMT was examined. Results We show that treatment of lung fibroblasts with Compound 408 efficiently inhibits LDH5 and attenuates the TGF-β1-mediated metabolic shift towards aerobic glycolysis. Additionally, we demonstrate that LDH5 inhibition has no significant effect on TGF-β1-mediated FMT in primary human lung fibroblasts by analysing α-SMA fibre formation and fibronectin expression. Conclusions Our data strongly suggest that while LDH5 inhibition can prevent metabolic shifts in fibroblasts, it has no influence on FMT and therefore glycolytic dysregulation is unlikely to be the sole driver of FMT. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12931-019-1058-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chemical communication among freshwater organisms is an adaptation to improve their coexistence. Here,we focus on the chemical cues secreted by the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis, which are known to stimulate behavioural responses of Trichobilharzia ocellata (Plathelminthes, Digenea, Trematoda) miracidia. Such responses are commonly claimed to influence transmission positively, but in response to chemical cues miracidia randomly change their swimming direction. This kind of response does not necessarily increase transmission, because miracidia may be trapped at the periphery of very large snail odour-clouds, which may prevent them from approaching the snail. On the other hand, the odour clouds may be too small to improve host-localisation. To shed light on these scenarios, the spreading of molecules released around L. stagnalis (active space) was visualised by recording host-finding responses of T. ocellata miracidia when they approached snails. Behavioural responses of miracidia indicated the spreading of compounds forming an attractive active space only around the host-snail L. stagnalis, but not around sympatric non-host-snail species. The active space increased approximately linearly with the time the snail rested at the same spot and within 5 min it reached a volume of more than 30 times that of the snail. We also demonstrated in a large-scale experiment, that the active space of L. stagnalis significantly increases the transmission success of T. ocellata miracidia. Additionally, the microhabitat selection of T. ocellata miracidia was studied, demonstrating that peripheral locations near the water surface were preferred, which are also preferred sites of L. stagnalis. Improved chemoperception and microhabitat selection may have been a consequence of coevolution with snails and benefited miracidia, which became efficient transmissive stages.

The human BPI (bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein), stored in primary azurophilic granula of neutrophil granulocytes and produced by mucosal epithelia, has been known for decades to bind LPS (lipopolysaccharide) with very high affinity and to efficiently kill Gram-negative bacteria. Thus BPI potentially represents a central component of the innate immune system to directly combat microbes and modulate subsequent adaptive immune responses. Especially in the lungs, which are frequently exposed to a variety of inhaled pathogens, antimicrobial innate defence molecules such as BPI, are of exceptional relevance. In the present review, we highlight possible functions of BPI during acute pneumonia and CF (cystic fibrosis)-associated chronic infections in the lung.