BackgroundEvidence is mounting to suggest a causal relationship between the built environment and people’s physical activity behaviours, particularly active transport. The evidence base has been hindered to date by restricted consideration of cost and economic factors associated with built environment interventions, investigation of socioeconomic or ethnic differences in intervention effects, and an inability to isolate the effect of the built environment from other intervention types. The aims of this systematic review were to identify which environmental interventions increase physical activity in residents at the local level, and to build on the evidence base by considering intervention cost, and the differential effects of interventions by ethnicity and socioeconomic status.MethodsA systematic database search was conducted in June 2015. Articles were eligible if they reported a quantitative empirical study (natural experiment or a prospective, retrospective, experimental, or longitudinal research) investigating the relationship between objectively measured built environment feature(s) and physical activity and/or travel behaviours in children or adults. Quality assessment was conducted and data on intervention cost and whether the effect of the built environment differed by ethnicity or socioeconomic status were extracted.ResultsTwenty-eight studies were included in the review. Findings showed a positive effect of walkability components, provision of quality parks and playgrounds, and installation of or improvements in active transport infrastructure on active transport, physical activity, and visits or use of settings. There was some indication that infrastructure improvements may predominantly benefit socioeconomically advantaged groups. Studies were commonly limited by selection bias and insufficient controlling for confounders. Heterogeneity in study design and reporting limited comparability across studies or any clear conclusions to be made regarding intervention cost.ConclusionsImproving neighbourhood walkability, quality of parks and playgrounds, and providing adequate active transport infrastructure is likely to generate positive impacts on activity in children and adults. The possibility that the benefits of infrastructure improvements may be inequitably distributed requires further investigation. Opportunities to improve the quality of evidence exist, including strategies to improve response rates and representativeness, use of valid and reliable measurement tools, cost-benefit analyses, and adequate controlling for confounders.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12966-017-0613-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background: Shifting to active modes of transport in the trip to work can achieve substantial co-benefits for health, social equity, and climate change mitigation. Previous integrated modeling of transport scenarios has assumed active transport mode share and has been unable to incorporate acknowledged system feedbacks.Objectives: We compared the effects of policies to increase bicycle commuting in a car-dominated city and explored the role of participatory modeling to support transport planning in the face of complexity.Methods: We used system dynamics modeling (SDM) to compare realistic policies, incorporating feedback effects, nonlinear relationships, and time delays between variables. We developed a system dynamics model of commuter bicycling through interviews and workshops with policy, community, and academic stakeholders. We incorporated best available evidence to simulate five policy scenarios over the next 40 years in Auckland, New Zealand. Injury, physical activity, fuel costs, air pollution, and carbon emissions outcomes were simulated.Results: Using the simulation model, we demonstrated the kinds of policies that would likely be needed to change a historical pattern of decline in cycling into a pattern of growth that would meet policy goals. Our model projections suggest that transforming urban roads over the next 40 years, using best practice physical separation on main roads and bicycle-friendly speed reduction on local streets, would yield benefits 10–25 times greater than costs.Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first integrated simulation model of future specific bicycling policies. Our projections provide practical evidence that may be used by health and transport policy makers to optimize the benefits of transport bicycling while minimizing negative consequences in a cost-effective manner. The modeling process enhanced understanding by a range of stakeholders of cycling as a complex system. Participatory SDM can be a helpful method for integrating health and environmental outcomes in transport and urban planning.Citation: Macmillan A, Connor J, Witten K, Kearns R, Rees D, Woodward A. 2014. The societal costs and benefits of commuter bicycling: simulating the effects of specific policies using system dynamics modeling. Environ Health Perspect 122:335–344; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307250

A consensus definition of fecal incontinence is needed that accounts for alterations in quality of life. Further cross-sectional studies are required that minimize bias in their design and use validated self-administered questionnaires.

Objective: To estimate the effects on health, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions if short trips (≤7 km) were undertaken by bicycle rather than motor car. Conclusion:The health benefits of moving from cars to bikes heavily outweigh the costs of injury from road crashes. Implications: Transport policies thatencourage bicycle use will help to reduce air pollution and greenhouse emissions and improve public health.

16As a major sector contributing to the UK's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, housing is an 17 important focus of Government policies to mitigate climate change. Current policy promotes 18 the application of a variety of energy efficiency measures to a diverse building stock, which 19 will likely lead to a wide range of unintended consequences. We have undertaken a scoping 20 review identifying more than 100 unintended consequences impacting building fabric, 21 population health and the environment, thus highlighting the urgent need for Government and 22 society to reconsider its approach. Many impacts are connected in complex relationships. Some 23 are negative, others possibly co-benefits for other objectives. While there are likely to be 24 unavoidable trade-offs between different domains affected and the emissions reduction policy, 25 a more integrated approach to decision making could ensure co-benefits are optimised, negative 26 impacts reduced and trade-offs are dealt with explicitly. Integrative methods can capture this 27 complexity and support a dynamic understanding of the effects of policies over time, bringing 28 together different kinds of knowledge in an improved decision-making process. We suggest 29 that participatory systems dynamics (PSD) with multi/inter-disciplinary stakeholders is likely 30 to offer a useful route forward, supporting cross-sectorial policy optimisation that places 31 reducing housing GHG emissions alongside other housing policy goals. 32 33 Introduction 34