We report here density functional theory calculations and molecular dynamics atomistic simulations to determine the total capacitance of graphene-modified supercapacitors.

Electrochemical detection in complex biofluids is a long-standing challenge as electrode biofouling hampers its sensing performance and commercial translation. To overcome this drawback, pyrolyzed paper as porous electrode coupled with the drop casting of an off-the-shelf polysorbate, that is, Tween 20 (T20), is described here by taking advantage of the in situ formation of a hydrophilic nanocoating (2 nm layer of T20). The latter prevents biofouling while providing the capillarity of samples through paper pores, leveraging redox reactions across both only partially fouled and fresh electrodic surfaces with increasing detection areas. The nanometric thickness of this blocking layer is also essential by not significantly impairing the electron-transfer kinetics. These phenomena behave synergistically to enhance the sensibility that further increases over long-term exposures (4 h) in biological fluids. While the state-of-the-art antibiofouling strategies compromise the sensibility, this approach leads to peak currents that are up to 12.5-fold higher than the original currents after 1 h exposure to unprocessed human plasma. Label-free impedimetric immunoassays through modular bioconjugation by directly anchoring spike protein on gold nanoparticles are also allowed, as demonstrated for the COVID-19 screening of patient sera. The scalability and simplicity of the platform combined with its unique ability to operate in biofluids with enhanced sensibility provide the generation of promising biosensing technologies toward real-world applications in point-of-care diagnostics, mass testing, and in-home monitoring of chronic diseases.