A relatively simple change in insole design can help to counter effects of age-related (non-neuropathic) decline in foot-sole sensitivity, and is a viable intervention to enhance balance control.

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Summary Background Equine diagnostic anaesthesia can be a useful tool in challenging lameness examinations. However, anaesthetics diffuse over time leading to nonspecific desensitisation of periarticular structures. Nerves that convey sensation from the distal limb to the central nervous system pass in close proximity to the caudal stifle joint capsule. Therefore, diffusion of intra‐articular (IA) anaesthetics could cause inadvertent desensitisation of the distal limb resulting in a false diagnosis of stifle lameness. Objectives To determine if IA stifle anaesthesia can alleviate lameness originating in the distal limb. Study design Crossover experiment. Methods Nine horses were fitted with a circumferential hoof clamp to induce a moderate unilateral hindlimb lameness. Intra‐articular stifle anaesthesia was performed and gait was evaluated every 10 min during the 90‐min trial using an inertial sensor system. Push‐off and landing components of the lameness were assessed by measuring the mean inter‐stride difference between the maximum and minimum heights of the pelvis respectively. Differences were compared using a Wilcoxon signed‐rank test. Results Overall, horses with hoof clamp‐induced foot pain had a reduction in push‐off lameness after IA stifle anaesthesia. The mean change in diffmax at 90 min was −4.3 mm (P = 0.005) for the experimental group vs. −2.3 mm (P = 0.2) for the control group. Lameness decreased over time, with an average improvement of 23% at 30 min, 33% at 60 min and 38% at 90 min. There was high inter‐horse variability; 3/9 horses improved by ~50% within 30 min, while 2/9 improved by ~30% and 4/9 had minimal (<10%) or no improvement in lameness. Improvement after IA stifle anaesthesia was not related to the severity of baseline lameness (P = 0.3–0.7). Main limitations Limited clinical applicability of our lameness induction model. Conclusions Intra‐articular stifle anaesthesia reduces foot lameness in a third of horses by up to 50% within 30 min. Clinically, the results of IA stifle anaesthesia should be considered in the light of these findings before treatment recommendations are made, as additional diagnostics may be required to rule out pain originating in the distal limb.

We examine the evolution of host specificity for species of Telorchis, using the methods developed by researchers studying phytophagous insect-plant systems. Optimization of "generalist" compared with "specialist" onto the phylogeny for Telorchis revealed ambiguous patterns, depending on how the 2 terms were defined. Regardless of that definition, most of the evolutionary diversification of this group has been carried out within eucryptodiran turtles, the ancestral host group. From that plesiomorphic background, there appears to have been 2 episodes of specialization by way of a host switch into caudates (ancestor of T. stunkardi + T. sirenis) and snakes (T. auridistomi), and 1 episode of exuberant expansion producing a true generalist (T. corti). These results, which indicate that most species of Telorchis are tracking widespread plesiomorphic resources, mirror those reported for phytophagous insects and their plants. We believe that establishing a dialogue between the two research groups will be mutually beneficial to both and will strengthen our understanding of the complex factors underlying the evolution of coevolutionary associations.