Two experiments are reported which examine the relative efficacy of different imagery perspectives on a slalom type and a gymnastic type task. Twenty-four able-bodies sport, health and physical education students were allocated to either an internal visual imagery group or an external visual imagery group. In both experiments subjects watched video-recordings of someone completing the tasks, then performed five blocks of three trials with feedback after each block, and internal/external visual imagery before each trial. A transfer/retention trial was performed one week later. The tasks were a wheelchair slalom task and a pseudogymnastics routine performed using rhythmic gymnastics clubs to show static positions. The slalom task results suggested that in the retention test, the external visual imagery group focused on the speed of performance, whilst the internal visual imagery group focused on the accuracy of performance. These findings were interpreted as suggesting that internal visual imagery was more effective for the planning of action in response to changes in a visual field. However, in the gymnastics task, contrary to previous suggestions, external visual imagery was found to be more effective than internal visual imagery for both learning and subsequent retention. The roles of internal and external visual imagery are discussed in terms of task characteristics and the observational learning literature.

This study employed a qualitative methodology to examine the ways in which imagery is used by high-level slalom canoeists (n = 3) and artistic gymnasts (n = 3). Participants were interviewed about their imagery use and experiences in different environments. Athletes’ responses were analyzed using inductive and deductive procedures. A total of 43 raw data themes formed 10 first order and 3 second order dimensions, characterizing the athletes’ uses of imagery. Participants reported using imagery in a variety of different environments for cognitive and motivational purposes. Data showed several differences between the canoeists’ and gymnasts’ uses of imagery, reflecting the differing task demands of each sport. The experience of imagery was unique to each individual, and athletes were able to emphasize certain aspects or manipulate the content of their images for specific cognitive or motivational functions.

Following the theoretical framework of Lazarus and Folkman (1984), recently adapted to sport (Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006), 12 elite UK track athletes (M age = 22.7; SD = 2.4 years) participated in semistructured interviews to identify sources of strain. Inductive content analysis identified 11 general dimensions of sources of strain from 664 meaning units, which were subsequently categorized into competitive, organizational, and personal domains. Several sources of strain (e.g., competitive concerns, pressure to perform) were consistent with previous research supporting the suggestion that a core group of stressors may be evident across sports although several sources of strain appeared to be more pertinent to track athletes (e.g., social evaluation and self-presentation concerns) highlighting the need to consider group differences.

The MTI group had higher quit rates, more NRT, higher self-efficacy, and more positive behavioral interactions. Limitations of the study included self-report of tobacco use, small sample, and attrition. The investigators suggest a future study with a larger sample to test whether multicomponent interventions with telephone calls after discharge are more effective than is standard care in helping patients to quit and continue to abstain from smoking.

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