Glucose metabolism in vertebrate retinas is dominated by aerobic glycolysis (the “Warburg Effect”), which allows only a small fraction of glucose-derived pyruvate to enter mitochondria. Here, we report evidence that the small fraction of pyruvate in photoreceptors that does get oxidized by their mitochondria is required for visual function, photoreceptor structure and viability, normal neuron–glial interaction, and homeostasis of retinal metabolism. The mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) links glycolysis and mitochondrial metabolism. Retina-specific deletion of MPC1 results in progressive retinal degeneration and decline of visual function in both rod and cone photoreceptors. Using targeted-metabolomics and 13C tracers, we found that MPC1 is required for cytosolic reducing power maintenance, glutamine/glutamate metabolism, and flexibility in fuel utilization.

Aging is a major risk factor for age-related ocular diseases including age-related macular degeneration in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), cataracts in the lens, glaucoma in the optic nerve, and dry eye syndrome in the cornea. We used targeted metabolomics to analyze metabolites from young (6 weeks) and old (73 weeks) eyes in C57 BL6/J mice. Old mice had diminished electroretinogram responses and decreased number of photoreceptors in their retinas. Among the 297 detected metabolites, 45-114 metabolites are significantly altered in aged eye tissues, mostly in the neuronal tissues (retina and optic nerve) and less in cornea, RPE/choroid, and lens. We noted that changes of metabolites in mitochondrial metabolism and glucose metabolism are common features in the aged retina, RPE/choroid, and optic nerve. The aging retina, cornea, and optic nerve also share similar changes in Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), 1-methylnicotinamides, 3-methylhistidine, and other methylated metabolites. Metabolites in taurine metabolism are strikingly influenced by aging in the cornea and lens. In conclusion, the aging eye has both common and tissue-specific metabolic signatures. These changes may be attributed to dysregulated mitochondrial metabolism, reprogrammed glucose metabolism and impaired methylation in the aging eye. Our findings provide biochemical insights into the mechanisms of age-related ocular changes.

Metabolomics studies in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in animal models or postmortem donors are essential to understanding the retinal metabolism and to revealing the underlying mechanisms of retinal degenerative diseases. We have studied how different methods of euthanasia (CO or cervical dislocation) different isolation procedures and postmortem delay affect metabolites in mouse retina and RPE/choroid using LC MS/MS and GC MS. Compared with cervical dislocation, CO exposure for 5 min dramatically degrades ATP and GTP into purine metabolites in the retina while raising intermediates in glucose metabolism and amino acids in the RPE/choroid. Isolation in cold buffer containing glucose has the least change in metabolites. Postmortem delay time-dependently and differentially impacts metabolites in the retina and RPE/choroid. In the postmortem retina, 18% of metabolites were changed at 0.5 h (h), 41% at 4 h and 51% at 8 h. However, only 6% of metabolites were changed in the postmortem RPE/choroid and it steadily increased to 20% at 8 h. Notably, both postmortem retina and RPE/choroid tissue showed increased purine metabolites. Storage of eyes in cold nutrient-rich medium substantially blocked the postmortem change in the retina and RPE/choroid. In conclusion, our study provides optimized methods to prepare fresh or postmortem retina and RPE/choroid tissue for metabolomics studies.

Oxygen supplementation is necessary to prevent mortality in severely premature infants. However, the supraphysiological concentration of oxygen utilized in these infants simultaneously creates retinovascular growth attenuation and vasoobliteration that induces the retinopathy of prematurity. Here, we report that hyperoxia regulates the cell cycle and retinal endothelial cell proliferation in a previously unknown Myc-dependent manner, which contributes to oxygen-induced retinopathy.