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Even with increased risks, many children demonstrate resiliency and avoid being labeled for special education; however, research on risk and resilience has been problematic because of inadequate statistical models, limitations of available data, and the exclusion of key protective factors. This study used a national sample to examine the influence that family and school risk and protective factors had on special education identification longitudinally. Discrete-time hazard longitudinal modeling indicated that being female, from a higher socioeconomic environment, and having parents with higher expectations for postsecondary education protected against being labeled for special education between Kindergarten and fourth grade. Higher parental expectations for postsecondary education attainment was associated with lower rates of special education identification and also appeared to moderate the effects of poverty on identification.

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