According to diathesis-stress models, temperament traits, such as negative emotionality (NE), may moderate the effects of stressors on the development of symptoms of psychopathology, although very little research has tested such models in children. Moreover, there are few data on whether specific facets of NE (sadness, fear, or anger) may specifically moderate the effects of stress on depression versus anxiety. Finally, there is a paucity of research examining whether childhood temperament moderates the effect of disaster exposure on depressive or anxiety symptoms. Hurricane Sandy, which affected many thousands of people in New York State and surrounding regions in October 2012, offers a unique opportunity to address these gaps. Seven years prior to Hurricane Sandy, 332 three-year-old children completed lab-based measures of NE and its facets. Six years later, when they were nine years old, one parent rated their child’s depressive and anxiety symptoms. Approximately eight weeks post-Sandy (an average of one year after the age nine assessment), a parent again rated their child’s depressive and anxiety symptoms, as well as a measure of exposure to stress from Hurricane Sandy. Adjusting for symptom levels at age 9, higher levels of stress from Hurricane Sandy predicted elevated levels of depressive symptoms only in participants with high levels of temperamental sadness, and predicted elevated levels of anxiety symptoms only in participants high in temperamental fearfulness. These findings support the role of early childhood temperament as a diathesis for psychopathology, and highlight the importance of considering facets of temperament when examining their relationship to psychopathology.

Objective Although most people will experience a traumatic event, only some will develop significant psychological symptoms in the aftermath. In the current study, we utilize a preexisting longitudinal study located in Long Island to examine the impact of Hurricane Sandy on internalizing symptoms in a large sample of children. We focused on temperamental fear and a biomarker of risk for anxiety, the error-related negativity (ERN). The ERN is a negative deflection in the event-related potential (ERP) occurring when individuals make mistakes and is increased in anxious individuals. Method The final sample consisted of 223 children who had undergone an observational assessment of fear at age 3 and an electroencephalogram assessment of the ERN at age 6. At the age 9 assessment, internalizing symptoms were assessed, and then again after the hurricane (approximately 65 weeks later). Results A significant three-way interaction between fearfulness, hurricane stressors, and the ERN in predicting post-hurricane increases in internalizing symptoms suggested that children who were high in fear at age 3 and experienced elevated hurricane stressors were characterized by subsequent increases in internalizing symptoms, but only when they were also characterized by an increased ERN at age 6. Conclusion These findings support a diathesis-stress model, suggesting that early temperament and pre-stressor biological markers confer risk for increased psychological symptoms following environmental stressors.

Background Natural disasters expose entire communities to stress and trauma, leading to increased risk for psychiatric symptoms. Yet, the majority of exposed individuals are resilient, highlighting the importance of identifying underlying factors that contribute to outcomes. Methods The current study was part of a larger prospective study of children in Long Island, NY (N = 260). At age 9, children viewed unpleasant and pleasant images while the late positive potential (LPP), an event-related potential (ERP) component that reflects sustained attention towards salient information, was measured. Following the ERP assessment, Hurricane Sandy, the second costliest hurricane in U.S. history, hit the region. Eight weeks after the hurricane, mothers reported on exposure to hurricane-related stress and children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Symptoms were re-assessed 8 months after the hurricane. Results The LPP predicted both internalizing and externalizing symptoms after accounting for pre-hurricane symptomatology, and interacted with stress to predict externalizing symptoms. Among children exposed to higher levels of hurricane-related stress, enhanced neural reactivity to unpleasant images predicted greater externalizing symptoms 8 weeks after the disaster, while greater neural reactivity to pleasant images predicted lower externalizing symptoms. Moreover, interactions between the LPP and stress continued to predict externalizing symptoms 8 months after the hurricane. Conclusions Results indicate that heightened neural reactivity and attention towards unpleasant information, as measured by the LPP, predisposes children to psychiatric symptoms when exposed to higher levels of stress related to natural disasters, while greater reactivity to and processing of pleasant information may be a protective factor.

Background: This study explores the relationship of irritability to tantrums and loss of temper in a community and clinical sample. Methods: The community sample, recruited via commercial mailing lists, consisted of 462 6-year-olds whose parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA). Tantrums were assessed in the oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) section of the PAPA. Irritability was assessed in the depression section to identify persistently irritable and/or angry mood. The clinic sample, drawn from a child psychiatry clinic, included 229 consecutively referred 6-year-olds from 2005 through 2014 whose parents completed the CBCL and Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory (CASI). Temper loss and irritability items came from the ODD and depression sections of the CASI, and tantrum description was taken from an irritability inventory. Children's Global Assessment Scale (CGAS) and the CBCL Dysregulation Profile were examined in both samples. Logistic and multiple regression were used to compare rates of diagnosis, CBCL subscales, CGAS, and tantrum quality between children with tantrums only and tantrums with irritability. Results: Almost half (45.9%) of clinic children had severe tantrums; only 23.8% of those were said to be irritable. In the community, 11% of children had tantrums, but 78.4% of those were called irritable. However, irritability in the clinic, although less common, was associated with aggressive tantrums and substantial impairment. In contrast, irritability was associated with only a relatively small increase in impairment in the community sample. Conclusions: Irritability may have different implications in community versus clinic samples, and tantrums assessed in the community may be qualitatively different from those seen in clinics.

Background According to diathesis–stress models, personality traits, such as negative emotionality (NE) and positive emotionality (PE), may moderate the effects of stressors on the development of depression. However, relatively little empirical research has directly examined whether NE and PE act as diatheses in the presence of stressful life events, and no research has examined whether they moderate the effect of disaster exposure on depressive symptoms. Hurricane Sandy, the second costliest hurricane in US history, offers a unique opportunity to address these gaps. Method A total of 318 women completed measures of NE and PE 5 years prior to Hurricane Sandy. They were also assessed for lifetime depressive disorders on two occasions, the latter occurring an average of 1 year before the hurricane. Approximately 8 weeks after the disaster (mean = 8.40, s.d. = 1.48 weeks), participants completed a hurricane stress exposure questionnaire and a measure of current depressive symptoms. Results Adjusting for lifetime history of depressive disorders, higher levels of stress from Hurricane Sandy predicted elevated levels of depressive symptoms, but only in participants with high levels of NE or low levels of PE. Conclusions These findings support the role of personality in the development of depression and suggest that personality traits can be useful in identifying those most vulnerable to major stressors, including natural disasters.