There are in excess of 70 low or zero energy/carbon building definitions/standards in circulation around the world. However there are few zero energy or zero carbon buildings. This suggests that despite, or possibly because of, a continuing debate over definitions, aspiration has not been met by reality. In this paper the most important 35 standards are reviewed and a correlation between activity in standard generation and completed buildings is presented. Combining this with the requirement for an 80% cut in carbon emissions, a consideration of the proportion of humanity that live in countries without any standards and the ratio of new-build activity vs. pre-existing stock, leads to a conclusion that there is an urgent need for a binding international zero (rather than low) energy/carbon standard that can be adopted world-wide. It is argued this is only possible if carbon is ignored in favour of energy, and many lifecycle issues put to one side. In part this is because of changing national carbon intensities within the energy supply chain, but it is also due to unresolved issues in carbon and energy accountancy. It is hence suggested that such issues are left to optional additional local standards.

Vernacular architecture has great historical, cultural and architectonic value, but also much potential for reducing energy demand. However, the eco-refurbishment of heritage buildings within Mediterranean countries poses particular challenges. The research presented in this paper is part of a wider study aiming to develop an effective framework for the sustainable regeneration of heritage buildings in Malta, using the 17th-century Presidential Palace of San Anton, Attard, as a case study. This paper focuses on the role of education in this field. Through qualitative research, including workshops with stakeholders, a stakeholders focus group and a public questionnaire, the awareness levels, educational background and attitudes of key stakeholders were analysed and assessed, as was the policy framework within which they operate. Interventions were found to be required at all levels. Increased awareness and education, a supportive policy framework, and a shift in the perceptions and attitudes of several key stakeholders were identified as crucial in ensuring that interventions on heritage buildings do not negatively affect their environmental performance, and/or impact their architectural and cultural value. This paper features recommendations outlining a supportive strategy for improving the knowledge base of stakeholders, including students, professionals, the public, policy-makers and operators.