Gene duplications generate new genes that can acquire similar but often diversified functions. Recent studies of gene coexpression networks have indicated that, not only genes, but also pathways can be multiplied and diversified to perform related functions in different parts of an organism. Identification of such diversified pathways, or modules, is needed to expand our knowledge of biological processes in plants and to understand how biological functions evolve. However, systematic explorations of modules remain scarce, and no user-friendly platform to identify them exists. We have established a statistical framework to identify modules and show that approximately one-third of the genes of a plant's genome participate in hundreds of multiplied modules. Using this framework as a basis, we implemented a platform that can explore and visualize multiplied modules in coexpression networks of eight plant species. To validate the usefulness of the platform, we identified and functionally characterized pollen-and root-specific cell wall modules that multiplied to confer tip growth in pollen tubes and root hairs, respectively. Furthermore, we identified multiplied modules involved in secondary metabolite synthesis and corroborated them by metabolite profiling of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) tissues. The interactive platform, referred to as FamNet, is available at http://www.gene2function.de/famnet.html.

BackgroundLegumes have the unique capability to undergo root nodule and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Both types of root endosymbiosis are regulated by NSP2, which is a target of microRNA171h (miR171h). Although, recent data implies that miR171h specifically restricts arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in the root elongation zone of Medicago truncatula roots, there is limited knowledge available about the spatio-temporal regulation of miR171h expression at different physiological and symbiotic conditions.ResultsWe show that miR171h is functionally expressed from an unusual long primary transcript, previously predicted to encode two identical miR171h strands. Both miR171h and NSP2 transcripts display a complex regulation pattern, which involves the symbiotic status and the fertilization regime of the plant. Quantitative Real-time PCR revealed that miR171h and NSP2 transcript levels show a clear anti-correlation in all tested conditions except in mycorrhizal roots, where NSP2 transcript levels were induced despite of an increased miR171h expression. This was also supported by a clear correlation of transcript levels of NSP2 and MtPt4, a phosphate transporter specifically expressed in a functional AM symbiosis. MiR171h is strongly induced in plants growing in sufficient phosphate conditions, which we demonstrate to be independent of the CRE1 signaling pathway and which is also not required for transcriptional induction of NSP2 in mycorrhizal roots. In situ hybridization and promoter activity analysis of both genes confirmed the complex regulation involving the symbiotic status, P and N nutrition, where both genes show a mainly mutual exclusive expression pattern. Overexpression of miR171h in M. truncatula roots led to a reduction in mycorrhizal colonization and to a reduced nodulation by Sinorhizobium meliloti.ConclusionThe spatio-temporal expression of miR171h and NSP2 is tightly linked to the nutritional status of the plant and, together with the results from the overexpression analysis, points to an important function of miR171h to integrate the nutrient homeostasis in order to safeguard the expression domain of NSP2 during both, arbuscular mycorrhizal and root nodule symbiosis.

Over the last few decades, our understanding of directed cell growth in different organisms has substantially improved. Tip-growing cells in plants elongate rapidly via targeted deposition of cell wall and membrane material at the cell apex, and use turgor pressure as a driving force for expansion. This type of polar growth requires a high degree of coordination between a plethora of cellular and extracellular components and compounds, including calcium dynamics, apoplastic reactive oxygen species and pH, the cytoskeleton, and vesicular trafficking. In this review, we attempt to outline and summarize the factors that control root hair growth and how they work together as a team.

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