Invasive species can have negative consequences on native reptile populations, especially on island systems. Chemical control can be a cost-effective way to control or eradicate invasive species. Chemical control is currently in use in New Zealand to limit impacts of non-native mammals and plants on a range of native biodiversity. However, it is important to consider the potential non-target risks of chemical control to native species that are likely already significantly reduced in number. We aimed to characterise the toxicity of several rodenticides and herbicides to reptiles and to provide a screening-level risk assessment of these chemicals applicable to native reptiles of New Zealand using the western fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis, as a surrogate organism. We used the Up-and-Down testing procedure to estimate oral toxicity for all compounds. We tested five rodenticides (brodifacoum, coumatetralyl, pindone, diphacinone and cholecalciferol). Only pindone was toxic to fence lizards at concentrations below 1750 µg g-1 (LD50 = 550 µg g-1). We tested five herbicides (glyphosate, clopyralid, triclopyr, metsulfuron-methyl and haloxyfop-methyl) and one common adjuvant in glyphosate formulations (polyethoxylated tallowamine or POEA). Only triclopyr was toxic to fence lizards below 1750 µg g-1 (LD50 = 550 µg g-1). Toxicity does not necessarily imply risk. Using the pindone concentrations in accepted bait formulations in New Zealand, a 10 g lizard would need to ingest 4.7 g of pindone bait in a single day in order to achieve toxic levels, which is extremely unlikely. We used the highest acceptable application rate for triclopyr to estimate risk for reptiles and found minimal risk of acute toxicity from triclopyr applications. Taken together, our data suggest little risk of reptile acute toxicity from the tested rodenticides or herbicides in New Zealand, but research into sub-lethal effects is also required in order to make informed decisions about the ecological impacts of chemically controlling invasive species.

The dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) is a habitat specialist of conservation concern limited to shin oak sand dune systems of New Mexico and Texas (USA). Because much of the dunes sagebrush lizard's habitat occurs in areas of high oil and gas production, there may be direct and indirect effects of these activities. The congeneric Western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) was used as a surrogate species to determine direct effects of 2 contaminants associated with oil and gas drilling activities in the Permian Basin (NM and TX, USA): herbicide formulations (Krovar and Quest) and hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S). Lizards were exposed to 2 concentrations of H2 S (30 ppm or 90 ppm) and herbicide formulations (1× or 2× label application rate) representing high-end exposure scenarios. Sublethal behavioral endpoints were evaluated, including sprint speed and time to prey detection and capture. Neither H2S nor herbicide formulations caused significant behavioral effects compared to controls. To understand potential indirect effects of oil and gas drilling on the prey base, terrestrial invertebrate biomass and order diversity were quantified at impacted sites to compare with nonimpacted sites. A significant decrease in biomass was found at impacted sites, but no significant effects on diversity. The results suggest little risk from direct toxic effects, but the potential for indirect effects should be further explored.

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