Involvement of cell-derived extracellular particles, coined as matrix vesicles (MVs), in biological bone formation was introduced by Bonucci and Anderson in mid-1960s. In 1983, Anderson et al. observed similar structures in atherosclerotic lesion calcification using electron microscopy. Recent studies employing new technologies and high- resolution microscopy have shown that although they exhibit characteristics similar to MVs, calcifying extracellular vesicles (EVs) in cardiovascular tissues are phenotypically distinct from their bone counterparts. EVs released from cells within cardiovascular tissues may contain either inhibitors of calcification in normal physiological conditions or promoters in pathological environments. Pathological conditions characterized by mineral imbalance (e.g., atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, diabetes) can cause smooth muscle cells, valvular interstitial cells, and macrophages to release calcifying EVs, which contain specific mineralization-promoting cargo. These EVs can arise from either direct budding of the cell plasma membrane or through the release of exosomes from multivesicular bodies. In contrast, MVs are germinated from specific sites on osteoblast, chondrocyte, or odontoblast membranes. Much like MVs, calcifying EVs in the fibrillar collagen extracellular matrix of cardiovascular tissues serve as calcification foci, but the mineral that forms appears different between the tissues. This review highlights recent studies on mechanisms of calcifying EV formation, release, and mineralization in cardiovascular calcification. Furthermore, we address the MV–EV relationship, and offer insight into therapeutic implications to consider for potential targets for each type of mineralization.

Hydrogels are the most iconic class of soft materials and since their first report in the literature has attracted the attention of uncountable researchers. Over the past two decades, hydrogels become smart and sophisticated materials with plenty of applications possibilities. The biomedical research area has demonstrated a particular interest in hydrogels since they can be engineered from different polymers and due to their tunable properties. Moreover, hydrogels engineered from polymers extracted from biorenewable sources have been popularized in biomedical usages, as they are low-toxic, eco-friendly, biocompatible, easily accessible, and inexpensive at the same time. However, the multifaceted challenge is to find an ideal plant green hydrogel in the tissue engineering that can mimic critical properties of human tissues in terms of structure, function, and performance. In addition, these natural polymers are also idealized to be conveniently functionalized so that their chemical and physical behaviour can be manipulated for drug delivery and stem cell-guided tissue regeneration. Here, the most recent advances in the synthesis, fabrication and application of plant green hydrogels in biomedical engineering are reviewed. It covers essential and updated information about plant as green sources of biopolymers to be used in hydrogel synthesis, general aspects of hydrogels and plant green hydrogels and a substantive discussion regarding the use of such hydrogels in the biomedical engineering area. Furthermore, this review addresses and detail the present status of the field and, also, answer several important questions about the potential use of plant green hydrogels in advanced biomedical applications including therapeutic, tissue engineering, wound dressing, diagnostic, etc.

Neural tissue engineering aims at developing novel approaches for the treatment of diseases of the nervous system, by providing a permissive environment for the growth and differentiation of neural cells. Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems provide a closer biomimetic environment, and promote better cell differentiation and improved cell function, than could be achieved by conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture systems. With the recent advances in the discovery and introduction of different types of stem cells for tissue engineering, microfluidic platforms have provided an improved microenvironment for the 3D-culture of stem cells. Microfluidic systems can provide more precise control over the spatiotemporal distribution of chemical and physical cues at the cellular level compared to traditional systems. Various microsystems have been designed and fabricated for the purpose of neural tissue engineering. Enhanced neural migration and differentiation, and monitoring of these processes, as well as understanding the behavior of stem cells and their microenvironment have been obtained through application of different microfluidic-based stem cell culture and tissue engineering techniques. As the technology advances it may be possible to construct a “brain-on-a-chip”. In this review, we describe the basics of stem cells and tissue engineering as well as microfluidics-based tissue engineering approaches. We review recent testing of various microfluidic approaches for stem cell-based neural tissue engineering.

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Recent advances in nanotechnology are expected to increase our current understanding of neuroscience.