Down syndrome (DS) or trisomy 21 is a genetic condition often accompanied by chronic pain caused by congenital abnormalities and/or conditions, such as osteoarthritis, recurrent infections, and leukemia. Although DS patients are more susceptible to chronic pain as compared to the general population, the pain experience in these individuals may vary, attributed to the heterogenous structural and functional differences in the central nervous system, which might result in abnormal pain sensory information transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception. We tried to elaborate on some key questions and possible explanations in this review. Further clarification of the mechanisms underlying such abnormal conditions induced by the structural and functional differences is needed to help pain management in DS patients.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a leading cause of dementia, has been a global concern. AD is associated with the involvement of the central nervous system that causes the characteristic impaired memory, cognitive deficits, and behavioral abnormalities. These abnormalities caused by AD is known to be attributed by extracellular aggregates of amyloid beta plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Additionally, genetic factors such as abnormality in the expression of APOE, APP, BACE1, PSEN-1, and PSEN-2 play a role in the disease. As the current treatment aims to treat the symptoms and to slow the disease progression, there has been a continuous search for new nutraceutical agent or medicine to help prevent and cure AD pathology. In this quest, honey has emerged as a powerful nootropic agent. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the high flavonoids and phenolic acids content in honey exerts its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. This review summarizes the effect of main flavonoid compounds found in honey on the physiological functioning of the central nervous system, and the effect of honey intake on memory and cognition in various animal model. This review provides a new insight on the potential of honey to prevent AD pathology, as well as to ameliorate the damage in the developed AD.