Nicotine permeates into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it begins an “inside-out” pathway that leads to addiction. Shivange et al. develop genetically encoded nicotine biosensors and show that nicotine and varenicline equilibrate in the ER within seconds of extracellular application.

Here we design and optimize a genetically encoded fluorescent indicator, iAChSnFR, for the ubiquitous neurotransmitter acetylcholine, based on a bacterial periplasmic binding protein. iAChSnFR shows large fluorescence changes, rapid rise and decay kinetics, and insensitivity to most cholinergic drugs. iAChSnFR revealed large transients in a variety of slice and in vivo preparations in mouse, fish, fly and worm. iAChSnFR will be useful for the study of acetylcholine in all animals. IntroductionAcetylcholine (ACh) is a critical neurotransmitter in all animals. Among invertebrates, it is the most prevalent excitatory transmitter in the brain, sensory ganglia, and frequently the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Among vertebrates, only a minority of neurons release ACh, but these signals play varying key roles. For instance, ACh signals at the NMJ, in the autonomic nervous system, and in subsets of the central nervous system, particularly projections arising from the brainstem and basal forebrain. Other cholinergic neuron populations in the brain include striatal interneurons, the stria vascularis-medial habenula-interpeduncular nucleus pathway, and sparse, incompletely characterized cell types such as intrinsic cholinergic interneurons in cortex 1 and hippocampus 2 . ACh helps to regulate attention 3 and wakefulness 4 , and participates in memory formation and consolidation 5 . ACh is also an important transmitter in glia, and between the nervous and immune systems 6 .Acetylcholine is synthesized pre-synaptically from choline and acetyl-CoA by choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), then packaged into synaptic vesicles by the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). A key, partially understood aspect of cholinergic signaling is co-release with other neurotransmitters, including GABA, ATP, and glutamate 7,8 . To understand the role of co-release, one must measure ACh release alongside emerging measurements of other neurotransmitters.Acetylcholine receptors are among the most diverse neurotransmitter receptor families. Humans possess five muscarinic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for ACh (mAChRs) with diverse expression in the brain and smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle. Vertebrate nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) are pentameric ligand-gated cation channels. Humans have a total of 17 nAChR subunit genes, in five classes: 10 a, 4 b, and one each of g, d, and e. nAChRs occur with many subunit combinations 9 , and others may be undiscovered. Invertebrates also have AChgated chloride channels. On neurons, receptors can be localized pre-, post-, and extrasynaptically, often with different isoforms in each place 10