The SLC4 family consists of ten genes (SLC4A1-5; SLC4A7-11). All encode integral membrane proteins with very similar hydropathy plots—consistent with 10 – 14 transmembrane segments. Nine SLC4 members encode proteins that transport HCO3− (or a related species, such as CO3=) across the plasma membrane. Functionally, eight of these proteins fall into two major groups: three Cl-HCO3 exchangers (AE1 – 3) and five Na+-coupled HCO3− transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NBCn2, NDCBE). Two of the Na+ - coupled transporters (NBCe1, NBCe2) are electrogenic; the other three Na+-coupled HCO3− transporters and all three AEs are electroneutral. In addition, two other SLC4 members (AE4, SLC4A9 and BTR1, SLC4A11) do not yet have a firmly established function. Most, though not all, SLC4 members are functionally inhibited by 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonate (DIDS). SLC4 proteins play important roles many modes of acid-base homeostasis: the carriage of CO2 by erythrocytes, the transport of H+ or HCO3− by several epithelia, as well as the regulation of cell volume and intracellular pH.

SLC26 proteins function as anion exchangers, channels, and sensors. Previous cellular studies have shown that Slc26a3 and Slc26a6 interact with the R-region of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), (R)CFTR, via theSlc26 genes and proteins have attracted the attention of physiologists and geneticists. Why? Slc26a1 (Sat-1) was characterized as a Na ϩ -independent SO 4 2Ϫ transporter (1). Given the transport characteristics of the founding member of the gene family, Slc26 proteins were assumed to be sulfate transporters. Disease phenotypes, clone characterization, and family additions demonstrate that the Slc26 proteins are anion transporters or channels (2-4). These proteins have varied tissue expression patterns. At one extreme, Slc26a5 in mammals is found in the hair cells of the inner ear (5), whereas Slc26a2 (DTDST) is virtually ubiquitous in epithelial tissues (2).Several Slc26 proteins are found in the epithelia of the lung, intestine, stomach, pancreas, and kidney, usually in apical membranes. Interestingly these are also tissues and membranes in which the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) 5 has been found functionally or by immunohistochemistry. Ko and co-workers (6 -8) examined the distribution of Slc26a3 and Slc26a6 in HCO 3 Ϫ secretory epithelia, and asked if an interaction might occur between these Slc26 proteins and CFTR. In particular, these studies indicate that in expression systems, there is a reciprocal-stimulatory interaction of the STAS (sulfate transporter anti-sigma) domains of Slc26a3 and Slc26a6 with the regulatory region (R-region) of CFTR. These investigators hypothesized that this stimulatory interaction could account for the differences in pancreatic insufficiency and sufficiency observed in cystic fibrosis patients. Nevertheless, knock-out Slc26a6 mouse studies reveal more complicated cell and tissue physiology (see "Discussion").Slc26a9 has been reported to be a Cl Ϫ -HCO 3 Ϫ exchanger (9, 10) or a large Cl Ϫ conductance (3,11,12). Loriol and co-workers (12) indicated that SLC26A9 has a Cl Ϫ conductance that may be stimulated by HCO 3 Ϫ . Two other groups have indicated that the Cl Ϫ conductance is not affected by the presence of HCO 3 Ϫ (10, 11). We have recently demonstrated that Slc26a9 functions as both an electrogenic nCl Ϫ -HCO 3 Ϫ exchanger and a Cl Ϫ channel (10). Dorwart and colleagues (11) found that WNK kinases inhibited the SLC26A9 Cl Ϫ conductance but that this effect was independent of kinase activity. One group has a preliminary report indicating that WNK3 decreased Cl Ϫ uptake,

Summary Background Antibody-dependent pathogenicity is suggested in multiple sclerosis (MS) by intrathecal immunoglobulin production, IgG and complement deposition in the most common immunopathological lesion subtype (pattern II), and by a recent report that 47% of MS patients’ sera contain a glial potassium-channel-specific-IgG(inwardly-rectifying, Kir4.1). Our study’s aims were to determine, in MS serum and CSF, the frequency and specificity of Kir4.1-binding-IgG and, in demyelinating MS lesions, whether Kir4.1-immunoreactivity is retained or lost. Methods We tested by ELISA(Kir4.1-peptide 83–120) sera from 286 clinically and geographically diverse MS patients (229 population-based and 57 clinic-based),99 healthy controls and 109 disease controls, and cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] from 25 MS and 22 controls. CSFs and clinic-based MS-subset serum (50)were tested on functional Kir4.1-expressing cells, using methodologies validated for detecting clinically-pertinent neural plasma membrane-reactive autoantibodies: immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation (solubilized recombinant human Kir4.1). We evaluated Kir4.1-immunoreactivity in brain from 15 archival histopathologically-confirmed MS cases(22 plaques: 8 early active, 8 inactive, 6 remyelinated; 13 periplaque regions)and compared 3 non-neurological cases (8 normal-appearing white/gray matter regions). Findings Kir4.1-peptide-ELISA reactivity was rare and did not differ significantly for 286 MS or 208 control sera (both 1%); no CSF was positive. IgGin 0/50 clinic-based MS sera immunoprecipitated Kir4.1, but control Kir4.1-specific-IgG did. By immunofluorescence,1/50 MS sera yielded faint plasmalemmal staining on both Kir4.1-expressing and non-expressing cells; 16/50 bound faintly to intracellular components. In all cases, IgG binding was quenched by absorption with liver powder or non-transfected cell lysates. Control Kir4.1-specific-IgG binding was quenched only by Kir4.1 protein-containing lysates. IgG in 0/25 MS CSFs bound to Kir4.1-transfected cells, live or fixed. Glial Kir4.1-immunoreactivity was increased relative to baseline normal brain expression (3 controls) in early active and remyelinated MS lesions, and in periplaque white matter (15 patients). Interpretation We did not find Kir4.1-specific-IgG in MS sera or CSF, nor Kir4.1 loss from glial cells in active demyelinating MS lesions. Serological testing for Kir4.1-IgG is unlikely to aid MS diagnosis. The target antigen of MS remains elusive. Funding The National Institutes of Health, the National Multiple Sclerosis Society and the Mayo Clinic Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging.

Examination of aquaporin (AQP) membrane channels in extremophile plants may increase our understanding of plant tolerance to high salt, drought or other conditions. Here, we cloned a tonoplast AQP gene (TsTIP1;2) from the halophyte Thellungiella salsuginea and characterized its biological functions. TsTIP1;2 transcripts accumulate to high levels in several organs, increasing in response to multiple external stimuli. Ectopic overexpression of TsTIP1;2 in Arabidopsis significantly increased plant tolerance to drought, salt and oxidative stresses. TsTIP1;2 had water channel activity when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. TsTIP1;2 was also able to conduct H₂O₂ molecules into yeast cells in response to oxidative stress. TsTIP1;2 was not permeable to Na(+) in Xenopus oocytes, but it could facilitate the entry of Na(+) ions into plant cell vacuoles by an indirect process under high-salinity conditions. Collectively, these data showed that TsTIP1;2 could mediate the conduction of both H₂O and H₂O₂ across membranes, and may act as a multifunctional contributor to survival of T. salsuginea in highly stressful habitats.

Plant non-symbiotic hemoglobins (nsHbs) play important roles in a variety of cellular processes. Previous evidence from this laboratory indicates that the expression of a class 1 nsHb gene (GhHb1) from cotton is induced in cotton roots challenged with the Verticillium wilt fungus. The present study examined further the expression patterns of the GhHb1 gene in cotton plants and characterized its in vivo function through ectopic overexpression of the gene in Arabidopsis thaliana. Expression of GhHb1 in cotton plants was induced by exogenously applied salicylic acid, methyl jasmonic acid, ethylene, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and nitric oxide (NO). Ectopic overproduction of GhHb1 in Arabidopsis led to constitutive expression of the defense genes PR-1 and PDF1.2, and conferred enhanced disease resistance to Pseudomonas syringae and tolerance to V. dahliae. GhHb1-transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings were more tolerant to exogenous NO and contained lower levels of cellular NO than the wild-type control. Moreover, transgenic plants with relatively high levels of expression of the GhHb1 gene developed spontaneous hypersensitive lesions on the leaves in the absence of pathogen inoculation. Our results indicate that GhHb1 proteins play a role in the defense responses against pathogen invasions, possibly by modulating the NO level and the ratio of H(2)O(2)/NO in the defense process.