Covalent functionalization of graphene offers opportunities for tailoring its properties and is an unavoidable consequence of some graphene synthesis techniques. However, the changes induced by the functionalization are not well understood. By using atomic sources to control the extent of the oxygen and nitrogen functionalization, we studied the evolution in the structure and properties at the atomic scale. Atomic oxygen reversibly introduces epoxide groups whilst, under similar conditions, atomic nitrogen irreversibly creates diverse functionalities including substitutional, pyridinic, and pyrrolic nitrogen. Atomic oxygen leaves the Fermi energy at the Dirac point (i.e., undoped), whilst atomic nitrogen results in a net n-doping; however, the experimental results are consistent with the dominant electronic effect for both being a transition from delocalized to localized states, and hence the loss of the signature electronic structure of graphene.

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This study presents a globally optimal linear procedure for the simultaneous design of cooling water systems. The optimization entails obtaining optimal pipe diameters, pump selection, and detailed cooler design. For the latter, the Kern model and the linear formulation proposed by Gonçalves et al. (Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.2017565970) were used. The proposed linear model is compared with conventional design procedures, such as optimizing the design of each exchanger first, through area minimization or through area and pressure drop costs. The results illustrate in one of the examples the advantage of using the proposed simultaneous design approach.